Battle of Hampton Roads
The
Battle of Hampton Roads, often called
the Battle of the Monitor and the Merrimack, was a
naval battle of the
American Civil War, famous for being the first fight between two powered iron-covered warships, or "
ironclads", the
CSS Virginia and the
USS Monitor. It took place on
March 8 and
March 9,
1862 off
Sewell's Point, a narrow place near the mouth of
Hampton Roads,
Virginia.
The naval battle lasted two days. The first day saw the debut of the
Virginia and was fought without the
Monitor. Havoc was wreaked upon the wooden Union ships and the day ended with the Confederate side at a decided advantage. However, on the second day the
Monitor arrived and initiated the famous action known as the duel of the ironclads. Although the battle was inconclusive, it is significant in naval history. Prior to then, nearly all warships were made primarily of
wood. After the battle, design of ships and naval warfare changed dramatically, as nations around the world raced to convert their fleets to iron, as ironclads had shown themselves to be clearly superior to wooden ships in their ability to withstand enemy fire.
From the outset of the Civil War,
Union President
Abraham Lincoln implemented a plan to bring the
Confederate states back into the Union. He would use the larger and more powerful Union Navy to cut the Confederacy off from the rest of the world by
blockading the Confederacy's coastline on the
Atlantic Ocean and the
Gulf of Mexico, and controlling the
Mississippi River Valley with gunboats. Lincoln ordered the blockade as hostilities escalated.
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Burning of the frigate Merrimack and the Norfolk navy-yard. |
In the spring of 1861, land-based Confederate forces were able to seize
Norfolk, Virginia, and the surrounding area on the south side of Hampton Roads. Bluffed into a bloodless retreat by southern efforts headed by railroad president
William Mahone, the Union Navy burned and evacuated the
Gosport Shipyard, located in
Portsmouth, across the
Elizabeth River from Norfolk, destroying nine ships in the process, including the
Boston-built
frigate USS Merrimack. However, in the haste and confusion, the
Merrimack was only burned to the waterline.
The evacuation left only
Fort Monroe at
Old Point Comfort on the
Virginia Peninsula on the north side of Hampton Roads (across from
Sewell's Point at the mouth) under Union control in Tidewater Virginia. The channel ran close to the northern side, however, and Fort Monroe on the mainland was supplemented by an armed installation immediately south of the channel on a man-made island (later called
Fort Wool).
Occupation of Norfolk gave the Confederacy its only major shipyard and thousands of heavy guns. CS Brigadier General
Walter Gwynn, who commanded the Confederate defenses around Norfolk, erected batteries at Sewell's Point, both to protect Norfolk and to control Hampton Roads.
The Union dispatched a fleet of wooden warships to Hampton Roads to enforce the blockade. Fort Wool and Fort Monroe combined to secure access from Hampton Roads to both the Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. However, the waters inland on the
James and
Elizabeth Rivers were controlled by the
Confederate States Navy, which was also using wooden warships. Despite some skirmishes, neither navy was able to overcome the other. The impasse continued through the remainder of 1861, and into early 1862.
Ironclads were warships sheathed with thick iron plates for protection. The first uses of iron for naval protection had occurred in the Far East in the 16th century. (
Korea's Admiral
Yi Sun-sin built one in 1592). The world's first ocean-going iron-hulled armoured battleship, the French
La Gloire, was recently constructed. However, the use of iron to provide armor on traditional wooden sailing ships was still a developing technology in North America at the outset of the Civil War.
In early 1862, the Union and Confederate governments were each aware that some type of ironclad fighting vessel was under development by the other. Spies had reported some of the details. Each side was anxious to take advantage of the new technology, and fearful of what the other might accomplish.
The first Union and Confederate ironclads were very odd-looking in comparison with contemporary warships and also very different from each other. Neither had been completed to the full satisfaction of their respective designers when they sailed into history at Hampton Roads.
CSS Virginia
 |
CSS Virginia |
The Union Navy burned the USS
Merrimack during the evacuation of the
Gosport Shipyard at Portsmouth, Virginia in 1861. However, the ship was only burned to the waterline. Under Confederate control, the shipyard rebuilt it with ironclad plating and a reduced superstructure from her old burned out hull. She was commissioned as CSS
Virginia on
February 17,
1862.
Feeling that iron armor would make cannon fire ineffective against ships, the designer of
Virginia had her equipped with a ram, a weapon normally associated with ancient
galleys and not then used in contemporary warships.
Despite an all-out effort to complete her,
Virginia still had workmen on board when she sailed, and was rushed into service without the customary sea trials or under-way training.
USS Monitor
 |
USS Monitor |
The USS
Monitor was of a totally new design, and a favored project of President Lincoln. The unique design engineered by
John Ericsson featured an innovative rotating gun turret that housed two 11 inch (280 mm)
Dahlgren smooth bore cannons. It also had a low profile in the water and only a small part of the deck and the gun turret were visible to the enemy.
Monitor's hull was constructed at the Continental Iron Works in the
Greenpoint section of
Brooklyn, New York, and the ship was launched there on
January 30,
1862.
Monitor was one of the most innovative naval vessels of all time. Parts were forged in nine foundries and brought together to build the ship. The entire process took less than 120 days.
Despite the rapid construction, Lincoln was greatly frustrated that
Monitor's delivery from the builder was late. It was rushed to Hampton Roads, arriving later on the very day that its Confederate counterpart had made a stunning debut at the expense of the Union Navy.
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Map of events of the Battle of Hampton Roads. |
8 March 1862 â€" Virginia wreaks havoc on wooden Union warships
The battle began when the large and somewhat unwieldy CSS
Virginia of the Confederate States Navy, steamed into Hampton Roads on the morning of
March 8,
1862, and set to work attempting to break the Union blockade.
Virginia, commanded by Captain
Franklin Buchanan, was supported by
Raleigh and
Beaufort, and accompanied by
Patrick Henry,
Jamestown, and
Teaser.
 |
The sinking of Cumberland by the iron-clad Virginia. |
Virginia headed directly for the Union squadron. She opened the engagement when less than a mile distant from
USS Cumberland and the firing became general from blockaders and shore batteries.
Virginia rammed
Cumberland below the waterline and she sank rapidly, "gallantly fighting her guns," Buchanan reported in tribute to a brave foe, "as long as they were above water."
Buchanan next turned the
Virginia on
USS Congress. Seeing what had happened to
Cumberland, the captain of
Congress ordered his ship grounded in shallow water. By this time, the
James River Squadron, commanded by
John Randolph Tucker, had arrived and joined the
Virginia in its attack on the
Congress. This lasted for an hour, after which the badly-damaged
Congress surrendered. While the surviving crewmen of
Congress were being ferried off the ship, a Union battery on the north shore opened fire on
Virginia. In retaliation, the captain of the
Virginia ordered
Congress fired upon with red-hot shot and incendiary shell.
Congress later exploded when fires caused by the rebel ironclad caused her magazine to explode. The
Virginia was also damaged. Shots from
Cumberland,
Congress, and Union troops had riddled her smokestack, reducing her already low speed. Two of her guns were disabled, and a number of armor plates had been loosened.
Meanwhile, the
James River Squadron had turned its attention to the
USS Minnesota which had left
Fort Monroe to join in the battle and had run aground. After the
Virginia had dealt with the surrender of the
Congress, it joined the
James River Squadron despite its damage. Because of her deep draft,
Virginia was unable to get close enough to do significant damage and as the fight wore on, darkness prevented the rest of the squadron from aiming their guns to any effect.
It being late in the day,
Virginia left with the expectation of returning the next day and completing the destruction of the Union fleet. She retreated into the safety of Confederate-controlled waters for the night.
The day was
Virginia's, but it was not without loss. Part of her ram had wrenched off and was left embedded in the side of the stricken
Cumberland. While
Virginia was firing on the shore battery, Captain Buchanan's thigh bone was broken by a musket ball. This necessitated his turning over command to Lieutenant
Catesby R. Jones. Buchanan's leg was subsequently amputated.
Confederate Secretary of the Navy
Stephen Mallory wrote to Confederate President
Davis of the action:
"The conduct of the Officers and men of the squadron … reflects unfading honor upon themselves and upon the Navy. The report will be read with deep interest, and its details will not fail to rouse the ardor and nerve the arms of our gallant seamen. It will be remembered that the
Virginia was a novelty in naval architecture, wholly unlike any ship that ever floated; that her heaviest guns were equal novelties in ordnance; that her motive power and obedience to her helm were untried, and her officers and crew strangers, comparatively, to the ship and to each other; and yet, under all these disadvantages, the dashing courage and consummate professional ability of Flag Officer Buchanan and his associates achieved the most remarkable victory which naval annals record."
It had been a frightening and demoralizing day for the Union Navy. Late that night,
USS Monitor, commanded by Lieutenant
John L. Worden, arrived in Hampton Roads. The Union ironclad had been rushed to Hampton Roads in hopes of protecting the Union fleet and preventing
Virginia from threatening Union cities.
"Upon the untried endurances of the new USS
Monitor and her timely arrival," observed Captain
John A. Dahlgren, "did depend the tide of events."
9 March 1862 â€" Monitor engages Virginia
The next morning, on
March 9,
1862, after undergoing repairs,
Virginia returned to finish off the grounded
Minnesota. The way was blocked by the newly arrived
Monitor, which the commander of the rebel ship later described as "little more than a cheesebox on a raft".
After fighting for hours, mostly at close range, neither could overcome the other. The smaller and nimbler
Monitor was able to outmaneuver the
Virginia, but neither ship proved able to do significant damage to the other. Finally,
Virginia retreated, leaving
Monitor and the rest of the Union fleet in possession of the "battlefield". Both sides claimed victory. Strategically,
Virginia was unable to dislodge the Union blockade, and so while the tactical battle was inconclusive, the strategic balance remained in the Union's favor.
Although the two ships both left the encounter fully functional, the Monitor's guns were considerably more powerful than the Virginia's and managed to crack the Virginia's armor plate in several places whereas the Virginia only managed to dent the Monitor's armor.
Spring 1862 â€" a standoff at Hampton Roads
During the next two months,
Virginia made several sorties to Hampton Roads hoping to draw
Monitor into battle. Most days
Virginia would slowly steam down the Elizabeth River to the Confederate forts on Craney Island or Sewell's Point. Across Hampton Roads,
Monitor and a vast number of Union ships waited for the Confederate ship to venture down towards Fort Monroe.
The Union plan was to engage
Virginia in waters of their own choosing.
Monitor was under presidential orders not to enter a fight unless it was absolutely unavoidable. The Union Navy Department had leased several large steamers for the express purpose of running
Virginia down. The plan was to wait for the Confederate ship to venture into deep water and the large steamers would attempt to run up on
Virginia's submerged deck ends and hopefully sink the ship.
Virginia did venture into Hampton Roads on two occasions and attempted to entice
Monitor out to fight, but owing to the presidential order, the challenge went unanswered.
What was probably the most anticipated naval battle of its day never materialized. USS
Monitor and CSS
Virginia never fought each other again.
The broad impact of the battle on naval thinking was summarized by Captain Levin M. Powell of
USS Potomac writing later from Vera Cruz: "The news of the fight between the
Monitor and the
Merrimack has created the most profound sensation amongst the professional men in the allied fleet here. They recognize the fact, as much by silence as words, that the face of naval warfare looks the other way now and the superb frigates and ships of the line … supposed capable a month ago, to destroy anything afloat in half an hour … are very much diminished in their proportions, and the confidence once reposed in them fully shaken in the presence of these astounding facts." And as Captain Dahlgren phrased it: "Now comes the reign of iron and cased sloops are to take the place of wooden ships."
After the Battle of Hampton Roads, neither ship played much of a subsequent part in the war, and neither survived 1862.
Events on land surrounding Hampton Roads forced the Confederates to abandon the Norfolk area. As the evacuation of Norfolk and Portsmouth got under way on
May 10,
1862, the officers and crew of
Virginia were left with few options. Commander
Josiah Tattnall realized that his ship had too much draft to make it up the James River to Richmond, and there was little chance of successfully escaping out of Hampton Roads past the waiting fleet of Union warships off Fort Monroe that were surely anticipating just such a move.
To keep her from being captured, early on the morning of
May 11,
1862, Tattnall ordered
Virginia run aground at
Craney Island and set afire. After burning fiercely for about an hour, the flames reached her magazine and the ship was destroyed by a great explosion.
More than 10 years after the end of hostilities, on
May 30,
1876, the wreck of the
Virginia was raised and transported back to the ship yard at Portsmouth where it was broken up.
Portions of the
Virginia, including her armor, anchor, and guns, have been displayed for many years at the
Norfolk Naval Shipyard in
Portsmouth and the
Mariners' Museum in
Newport News. The anchor of the
Virginia sits on the lawn in front of the
Museum of the Confederacy, established in
Richmond in 1890.
USS
Monitor became the prototype for the
monitor warship type. Many more were built, including
river monitors, and they played key roles in civil war battles on the Mississippi and James rivers. However, while the design proved exceptionally well-suited for river combat, the low-profile and heavy turret caused poor seaworthiness in rough waters. This feature probably led to the early demise of the original
Monitor in December, 1862, when she foundered and sank in the Atlantic Ocean off
Cape Hatteras,
North Carolina. In 1973, the wreck was located. (See below for more).
Historical names: Merrimack
The name of the warship which served the Confederacy in the famous Battle of Hampton Roads has been a continuing source of confusion. She was rebuilt and commissioned by the Confederacy as CSS
Virginia, but the Union preferred to call the Confederate ironclad warship by its earlier name,
"Merrimack". Perhaps because the Union won the Civil War, the history of the United States generally records the Union version. However, at some later time the name commonly used was shortened by dropping the final "-k", hence "the Battle of the
Monitor and the
Merrimac". Both spellings are still in use in the Hampton Roads area.
Confederate ironclad
The small community in
Montgomery County near the location where the iron for the Confederate ironclad was forged is now known as
Merrimac, Virginia. Some of the iron mined there and used in the plating on the Confederate ironclad is displayed at the
Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth. Other pieces are on display at the
Mariners' Museum in Newport News and the
Museum of the Confederacy in Richmond, where the anchor has resided for many years.
Jamestown Exposition of 1907
The
Jamestown Exposition was one of the many
world's fairs and expositions that were popular in the United States early in the 20th century. It was held from
April 26 to
December 1,
1907, at Sewell's Point on Hampton Roads, near Norfolk, and commemorated the tercentennial (300th) anniversary of the founding of the
Jamestown Settlement.
One of the more popular attractions was a re-creation of the Battle of Hampton Roads, which had taken place 40 years earlier within sight of the exposition. The exterior of the Merrimack-Monitor Building looked somewhat like a battleship while the interior contained a large circular description of the battle.
Monitor-Merrimack Memorial Bridge-Tunnel
In 1992, Virginia's Department of Transportation completed the 4.6-mile (7.4 km)
Monitor-Merrimack Memorial Bridge-Tunnel. This important traffic link carrying
Interstate 664 crosses Hampton Roads very close to the site of the famous clash of the ironclads. It cost $400 million to build, and includes a four-lane
tunnel that is 4,800 feet (1,460 m) long, two man-made portal islands, and 3.2 miles (5.1 km) of twin trestle. Northbound traffic is provided an exceptional view of the location of the historic battle.
After resting undetected on the ocean floor for 111 years, the wreck of
Monitor was located by a team of scientists in 1973. The remains of the ship were found 16 miles (26 km) off
Cape Hatteras, on a relatively flat, sandy bottom at a depth of about 240 feet (73.2 m).
Monitors hull lies upside down, with her deck resting on her displaced gun turret. In 1987, the site was declared a National Historic Landmark, the first shipwreck to receive this distinction.
Because of Monitors advanced state of deterioration, timely recovery of remaining significant artifacts and ship components became critical. Since then, using new technologies, hundreds of fragile artifacts, including the turret and its two Dahlgren cannons, an anchor, steam engine, and propeller, have been recovered and were carefully transported back to Hampton Roads.
The USS
Monitor Center is a popular attraction at the
Mariners' Museum in Newport News, where the artifacts have joined some of those from
Virginia.*Hogg, I.
Weapons of the Civil War.
*Milton, Keith. "Duel At Hampton Roads."
Military Heritage. December 2001. Volume 3, No. 3: 38-45, 97 (Ironclads C.S.A. Virginia (also known as Merrimack) versus the Union Monitor of the Civil War).
The Battle of Hampton Roads, a poem featured in
Vanity Fair on March 29, 1862.
*
USS Monitor*
CSS Virginia*
USS Merrimack (1855)*
Library of Virginia official website*
A record of events in Norfolk County, Virginia, online text with an entire chapter on the battle.
*
Virginia Historical Society official website*
Museum of the Confederacy in Richmond, VA official website*
Hampton Roads Visitor Guide*
USS Monitor Center, Newport News, Virginia*
Mariner's Museum, Newport News, Virginia*
Hampton Roads Naval Museum*
Civil War Naval History*
Fort Wool History*
Roads to the Future â€" I664 Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge Tunnel*
USS Monitor National Historical Site*
Monitor in the news â€" Its 'revolutionary' gun turret has been raised from the ocean floor.
*
On-line exhibition of the Monitor*
website devoted to CSS Virginia*
U.S. Navy, Craney Island Fuel Terminal, History*
Library of Congress website has a larger, more detailed, color map of the events of the battle.
*
Batlle of Hampton Road website*First Edition Report on the
Battle of the Monitor and Merrimac
