Courland
Courland (; ;
Latin:
Curonia /
Couronia; ; ; ; ) is an historical
Baltic province now part of
Latvia. It formed a
province of the
Teutonic Order in
Livonia (ca.
1200â€"
1560), then became a
duchy within the
Polishâ€"Lithuanian Commonwealth (
1560â€"
1795), and a province of
Imperial Russia (
1795â€"
1918). It lies between 55° 45′ and 57° 45′
North and 21° and 27°
East.
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Entrance to the Rundale Palace, the seat of the sovereign Dukes of Courland. |
Courland's northeastern boundary was the river
Daugava (Dvina), which separated it from the districts of
Latgale (part of
Vitebsk province in the times of Imperial Russia) and
Livonia. To the north, Courland's boundary was the
Gulf of Riga. On the west it was bordered by the
Baltic Sea, and on the south its neighbors were the
Prussian province of
East Prussia and
Kovno province in the time of Imperial Russia.
The area comprised 27,286 km² (10,535 sq.mi.), of which 262 km² (101 sq.mi.) was made up of lakes. The landscape generally had a low and undulating character, with flat and marshy coastlands. The interior featured wooded dunes, covered with
pine,
fir,
birch, and
oak, with swamps and lakes, and fertile patches between. Courland's elevation never rose more than 213 m (700 feet) above sea level.
The
Jelgava (Mitau) plain divided Courland into two parts:
* the western side, fertile and thickly inhabited, except in the north
* the eastern side was less fertile and thinly inhabited.
Nearly one hundred rivers drained Courland, but only three of those rivers are navigable. They all flow northwestward and discharge into the
Baltic Sea.
Owing to its numerous lakes and marshes, Courland had a damp, often foggy, and changeable climate, with severe winters.
Agriculture was the chief occupation, with the principal crops being
rye,
barley,
oats,
wheat,
flax, and
potatoes.
The population was 619,154 in
1870; 674,437 in
1897, of whom 345,756 were women; 714,200 (estimate) in
1906. Of the whole, 79% were
Latvians, 8.75%
Germans, 1.7% Russians, and 1% each
Poles and
Lithuanians. In addition, there were about 8%
Jews, and some
Livonians.
The chief towns of the ten districts were
Jelgava (Mitau), Courland's capital (pop. 35,011 in 1,897),
Bauska (6,543),
Jaunjelgava (Friedrichstadt) (5,223),
Kuldīga (Goldingen) (9,733),
Grobiņa (1,489),
Aizpute (Hasenpoth) (3,338),
Ilūkste (Illuxt) (2,340),
Talsi (Talsen) (6,215),
Tukums (Tuckum) (7542), and
Ventspils (Windau) (7,132).
75% of the population belonged to the prevailing denomination,
Lutheranism; the rest belonged to the Eastern
Orthodox and
Roman Catholic churches. There was a small but vigorous Jewish population.
Early history
In ancient times the
Curonians, a
Baltic tribe, inhabited Courland. The
Brethren of the Sword, a German
military order, subdued the Curonians and converted them to
Christianity in the first quarter of the
13th century. In
1237 the area passed into the rule of the
Teutonic Knights owing to the amalgamation of this order with that of the Brethren of the Sword. At that time Courland comprised the two duchies of Courland and of
Semigalia (Semgallen).
Duchy of Courland, 1561â€"1795
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Outline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with its major subdivisions as of 1619 superimposed on present-day national borders |
During the
Livonian Wars (
1558â€"
1582), under the increasing pressure of Russia, the Livonia Confederation dissolved. On the basis of the
Wilno Pact, The south-western part of
Estonia and the north-eastern part of
Latvia were ceded to
Poland and formed into the
Ducatus Ultradunensis (
PÄrdaugavas hercogiste). The part of Latvia between the west bank of the
Daugava River and the
Baltic Sea formed another new region, the Duchy of Courland and
Semigalia (
Kurzemes un Zemgales hercogiste). It depended on the
Grand Duke of Lithuania, later on the king of Poland and Lithuania.
Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the
Order of Livonia, became the first duke of Courland.
Several parts of the Courland area did not belong to the Duchy. The Order of Livonia had already loaned the Grobiņa district (on the coast of Baltic Sea) to the
Duke of Prussia. Another district, the
Bishopric of
Piltene, also called the "Bishopric of Courland" (on the Venta River in western Courland), belonged to
Magnus, the king of
Denmark. He promised to transfer it to the Duchy of Courland after his death, but this plan failed and only later did
Wilhelm Kettler regain this district.
When Gotthard Kettler died in 1587, his sons, Friedrich and Wilhelm, became the dukes of Courland. They divided the Duchy into two parts in
1596. Friedrich controlled the eastern part,
Semigalia (
Zemgale), with his residence in
Jelgava (
Mittau). Wilhelm owned the western part, Courland (Kurzeme), with his residence in Kuldīga (Goldingen). Wilhelm regained the Grobiņa district when he married the daughter of the Duke of Prussia. He also paid out and regained control over the
Piltene district, but eventually it fell to Poland. Here he developed
metalworking,
shipyards, and the new ships delivered the goods of Courland to other countries.
However, relations between the duke and the landowners were quite hostile. In addition, Poland, the overlord of the Duchy of Courland, supported the landowners. Wilhelm expressed his disappointment with the landowners, but this ended with his removal from the duke's seat in
1616. Finally, Wilhelm left Courland and spent the rest of his life abroad. Thus, Friedrich became the only duke of Courland after
1616.
From
1600 to
1629, Poland and
Sweden conducted a war with its main battlefields around
Riga. As the result, Sweden gained control of central and northern
Latvia, which became
Swedish Livonia. Poland retained the eastern part of the Duchy of Livonia, thereafter called
Inflanty in Polish. Courland was also involved in this war, but did not suffer severe damage.
Under the next duke,
Jacob Kettler, the Duchy reached the peak of its prosperity. During his travels in Western Europe, Jacob became the eager proponent of
mercantilist ideas. Metalworking and ship building became much more developed, and powder mills began producing gunpowder. Trading relations developed not only with nearby countries, but also with
Britain,
France, the
Netherlands,
Portugal, etc. Jacob established the merchant fleet of the Duchy of Courland, with its main harbours in
Ventspils and
LiepÄja.
In
1651 the Duchy gained its first
colony in
Africa,
St. Andrews Island at the
Gambia River and established
Jacob Fort there. (See
Courland colonization.) The main export goods included ivory, gold, furs and spices. Soon afterwards, in 1652, Courlanders established another colony, in
Tobago in the
West Indies. There the main export goods included sugar, tobacco, coffee and spices. (For the Tobago colony, see
Courland colonization of the Americas.)
However, during this time, the Duchy of Courland remained an object of interest for both Sweden and Poland. In
1655 the Swedish army entered the territory of the Duchy and the
Swedishâ€"Polish war (
1655 â€"
1660) had begun. The Swedish army captured Duke Jacob (
1658 â€" 1660). During this period, the Dutch took over both of Courland's colonies, and the merchant fleet and factories suffered destruction. This war ended with the peace
Treaty of Oliwa (1660) (signed in
Oliwa, near
Danzig which is now called
Gdańsk). Courland regained Tobago on the basis of the treaty and held it until 1689. Duke Jacob set about restoring the fleet and factories, but the Duchy of Courland never again reached its pre-war level of prosperity.
When Jacob died in
1682, his son,
Friedrich Casimir, became the next duke. During his reign production continued to decrease. The duke himself was more interested in glamorous celebrations, and spent more money than he had to spend; he had to sell Tobago to the British. He died in
1698. During this period, Poland increased its influence in the political and economic life of the Duchy. Additionally, Russia showed an interest in this area.
The next Duke, Friedrich Wilhelm Kettler, was only six years old when he succeeded in
1698, and he was under the
regency of his uncle Ferdinand â€" a Polish general. During this time the
Northern Wars (
1700 â€"
1721) began between Sweden and Russia with its allies â€" Poland,
Saxony and
Denmark. As a result of the
Great Northern War, Russia controlled the central part of Latvia starting in
1710. In Courland, Russia also had such a strong influence that its ambassador,
Peter Bestuzhev, became the most powerful man in the duchy. The
Tsar of Russia,
Peter the Great, received a promise from Friedrich Wilhelm that he would marry one of the daughters of the tsar's brother. By having this promise, Peter the Great wished to increase the influence of Russia in Courland. So, in
1710, Friedrich Wilhelm married
Anna Ivanovna (later Empress of Russia), but on his way back from
St Petersburg, he took ill and died. Anne ruled as duchess of Courland from
1711 to
1730.
After the death of Friedrich Wilhelm, the next candidate for the seat of duke was
Ferdinand Kettler, but his residence was in Danzig. The Council of the Duke did not recognize him, because the rules required the duke to reside in the territory of the Duchy. So there was not any duke in Courland. Because Ferdinand was the last representative of Kettler's family, a remarkable number of candidates tried to gain the seat of duke during this period. One favorite was
Maurice de Saxe, natural son of
Frederick Augustus I the Strong, king of Poland. He was elected duke in
1726, but only managed to maintain himself by force of arms till the next year. Russia disliked him and sent an army to western Courland to destroy Maurice's base. As the result Maurice had to leave Courland and Russia increased its influence even more. The last Kettler, William, titular duke of Courland, died in
1737. When Anna Ivanovna, the wife of Ferdinand, became the Empress of Russia, her candidate,
Ernst Johann von Biron became the duke of Courland in 1737.
Biron received remarkable financial support from Russia and invested it in construction - for example, the castle of
Schloss Ruhenthal projected by the distinguished Italian architect
Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Anna Ivanovna died in
1740 and then occurred the change of persons, having their influence in political life in Russia. Duke Ernst Biron was exiled. Also from there, through the Council of the Duke, he continued to control the Duchy, having accept from the king of Poland. However, the landowners of Courland disliked that and even refused to follow the regulations of the Council of the Duke. King
August III of Poland gave up against the landowners of Courland and declared his son, Carl, the count of Saxony, the next duke. Thus, the Duchy of Courland had two dukes simultaneously thereafter. The situation became extremely tense â€" one part of the landowners accepted Ernst Biron, the other, Carl of Saxony.
The Empress of Russia, Catherine II (reigned 1762 - 1796) solved this situation by recalling Ernst Biron from exile in
1763. By doing this, she avoided the possible increase of Poland's influence in Courland. However, political fighting had exhausted Ernst Biron, and he turned the seat of duke over to his son, Peter Biron, in
1769.
But political tumult continued in Courland. Some landowners supported Poland, some Russia. Ultimately, Russia determined the further fate of Courland when with its allies it began the
third division of Poland (1795). Having a "nice recommendation" of Russia, duke Peter Biron gave up his rights to Russia in 1795. With the signing of the final document on
March 28,
1795, the Duchy of Courland ceased to exist.
Courland as part of Russia
The land was mostly owned by nobles of German descent. In
1863, the Russian authorities issued laws to enable Latvians, who formed the bulk of the population, to acquire the farms which they held, and special banks were founded to help them. By this means some occupants bought their farms; but the great mass of the population remained landless, and lived as hired labourers, occupying a low position in the social scale.
The large estates conducted agriculture with skill and scientific knowledge. Fruit grew well. Excellent breeds of cattle, sheep and pigs were kept. Libau and Mitau (Jelgava) operated as the principal industrial centres, with
ironworks, agricultural machinery works,
tanneries,
glass and
soap works. Flax
spinning took place mostly as a domestic industry.
Iron and
limestone were the chief minerals; a little
amber was found on the coast. The only seaports were Libau, Windau (Ventspils) and Polangen, there being none on the Courland coast of the Gulf of Riga.
Duchy of Courland, 1918
Courland as part of Latvia
After
World War I, Courland became a part of the newly-formed nation of
Latvia. In 1940 the
USSR annexed the region, but
Germany occupied it during
World War II. With the
dissolution of the Soviet Union, Courland became part of independent Latvia once more and it remains so to this day.
Courland during World War II
At the start of
Operation Barbarossa in
1941, Courland, along with the rest of the
Baltic area belonging to the
Soviet Union, was overrun by
Army Group North headed by
Field Marshal Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb. In
1944, the
Red Army lifted the
siege of Leningrad and re-conquered the Baltic area along with much of
Ukraine and
Belarus. However, some 200,000
German troops held out in Courland. They were besieged with their backs to the
Baltic Sea. They were senselessly stuck there; the Red Army naturally did not pay much attention while concentrating its men and weapons on the attacks on
East Prussia,
Silesia,
Pomerania, and ultimately
Berlin.
Colonel-General Heinz Guderian, the Chief of the
German General Staff, insisted to
Adolf Hitler that the troops in Courland should be evacuated by sea and used for the defense of the
Reich. However, Hitler refused and ordered the German forces in Courland to hold out. He believed them necessary to protect German submarine bases along the Baltic coast. On
January 15,
1945,
Army Group Courland (
Heeresgruppe Kurland) was formed under
Colonel-General Dr.
Lothar Rendulic. Until the end of the war, Army Group Courland (including divisions such as the Latvian Freiwiliger SS Legion) successfully defended the Latvian peninsula. It held out until
May 8,
1945, when it surrendered under
Colonel-General Carl Hilpert, the army group's last commander. He surrendered to Marshal
Leonid Govorov, the commander of opposing Soviet forces on the Courland perimeter. At this time the group still consisted of some 31 divisions of varying strength. After
May 9 1945 approximately 203,000 troops of Army Group Courland began moving to Soviet prison camps in the East. The majority of them never returned to Germany.
*
Gotthard Kettler,
1561â€"
1587*
Friedrich (1587â€"
1642) &
Wilhelm (1587â€"
1616) Kettler
*
Jacob Kettler, 1642â€"
1682*
Friedrich Casimir Kettler, 1682â€"
1698*
Friedrich Wilhelm Kettler, 1698â€"
1711 (No coinage issued)
*
Ferdinand Kettler, 1711â€"
1737 (No coinage issued)
*
Ernst Johann Biron, 1737â€"
1740 (No coinage issued)
*
The Council of the Duke, 1740â€"
1758 (No coinage issued)
*
Carl of Saxony, 1758â€"
1763*
Ernst Johann Biron (again), 1763â€"
1769*
Peter Biron, 1769â€"
1795*
Former countries in Europe after 1815*
Courland colonization*
Courland colonization of the Americas* Murray, John,
Russia, Poland, and Finland, - Handbook for Travellers, 3rd revised edition, London,
1875. (Includes Kurland).
* Hollmann,H,
Kurlands Agrarverhältnisse, Riga,
1893.
* Seraphim,E,
Geschichte Liv-, Esth-, und Kurlands, Reval,
1895â€"
1896 (2 vols).
* Christiansen, Eric,
The Northern Crusades - the Baltic & the Catholic Frontier 1100-1525, London, 1980, ISBN 0-333-26243-3
* Hiden, John,
The Baltic States and Weimar Ostpolitik, Cambridge University Press, 1987, ISBN 0-521-32037-2
* Kirby, David,
Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period - The Baltic World 1492 -1772, Longman, London, 1990, ISBN 0-582-00410-1
* Hiden, John W., & Patrick Salmon,
The Baltic Nations & Europe, Longman, London, 1991, ISBN 0-582-08246-3
* Haupt, Werner,
Army Group North: The Wehrmacht in Russia 1941-1945, Schiffer Publishing, Atglen, PA.,1997. ISBN 0-7643-0182-9
