Creativity
Creativity (or
creativeness) is a mental process involving the generation of new ideas or concepts, or new associations between existing ideas or concepts. From a scientific point of view, the products of creative thought (sometimes referred to as
divergent thought) are usually considered to have both
originality and
appropriateness. An alternative, more everyday conception of creativity is that it is simply the act of making something new. Although intuitively a simple phenomenon, it is in fact quite complex. It has been studied from the perspectives of
behavioural psychology,
social psychology,
psychometrics,
cognitive science,
artificial intelligence,
philosophy,
history,
economics,
design research,
business, and
management, among others. The studies have covered everyday creativity, exceptional creativity and even
artificial creativity. Unlike many phenomena in science, there is no single, authoritative perspective or definition of creativity. Unlike many phenomena in psychology, there is no standardized measurement technique.
Creativity has been attributed variously to
divine intervention,
cognitive processes, the
social environment,
personality traits, and
chance ("accident," "
serendipity"). It has been associated with
genius,
mental illness and
humour. Some say it is a
trait we are born with; others say it can be taught with the application of simple
techniques. Although popularly associated with
art and
literature, it is also an essential part of
innovation and
invention and is important in professions such as
business,
economics,
architecture,
industrial design,
science and
engineering.
Despite, or perhaps because of, the ambiguity and multi-dimensional nature of creativity, entire
industries have been spawned from the pursuit of creative ideas and the development of
creativity techniques. This mysterious phenomenon, though undeniably important and constantly visible, seems to lie tantalizingly beyond the grasp of scientific investigation.
"Creativity, it has been said, consists largely of re-arranging what we know in order to find out what we do not know." George Keller
"The problem of creativity is beset with mysticism, confused definitions, value judgments, psychoanalytic admonitions, and the crushing weight of philosophical speculation dating from ancient times." Albert Rothenberg
Creativity and creative people have been regarded with wonder and admiration for most of human history. It is fair to say that without creativity, human beings would have remained in a palaeolithic existence. Creativity is a central and powerful mode of
human activity and thought.
More than 60 different definitions of
creativity can be found in the psychological literature
[(Taylor, 1988)], and it is beyond the scope of this article to list them all. The
etymological root of the word in
English and most other
European languages comes from the
Latin creatus, literally "to have grown."
Perhaps the most widespread conception of creativity in the scholarly literature is that creativity is regarded to have occurred when there takes place the production of a creative product (for example, a new work of art or a scientific hypothesis) that is both
novel and
useful. Colloquial definitions of creativity are typically descriptive of activity that results in producing or bringing about something partly or wholly new; in investing an existing object with new properties or characteristics; in
imagining new possibilities that were not conceived of before; and in seeing or performing something in a manner different from what was thought possible or normal previously.
A useful distinction has been made by Rhodes
[(Rhodes, 1961)] between the creative person, the creative product, the creative process, and the creative 'press' or environment. Each of these factors are usually present in creative activity. This has been elaborated by Johnson
[(Johnson, 1972)], who suggested that creative activity may exhibit several dimensions including sensitivity to problems on the part of the creative agent, originality, ingenuity, unusualness, usefulness, and appropriateness in relation to the creative product, and intellectual leadership on the part of the creative agent.
Boden[(Boden, 2004)] noted that it is important to distinguish between ideas which are psychologically creative (which are novel to the individual mind which had the idea), and those which are historically creative (which are novel with respect to the whole of human history). Drawing on ideas from
artificial intelligence, she defines psychologically creative ideas as those which cannot be produced by the same set of generative rules as other, familiar ideas.
Often implied in the notion of creativity is a concomitant presence of inspiration, cognitive leaps or
intuitive insight as a part of creative thinking and acting
[(Koestler, 1964)].
Pop psychology sometimes associates creativity with
right or forehead brain activity or even specifically with
lateral thinking.
Some students of creativity have emphasized an element of
chance in the creative process.
Linus Pauling, asked at a public lecture how one creates
scientific theories, replied that one must endeavor to come up with
many ideas â€" then discard the useless ones.
The way in which different societies have perceived the concept of creativity has changed throughout history, as has the term
creativity itself.
Tatarkiewicz's
History of Six Ideas presents a historical survey of the concept
[(Tatarkiewicz, 1980)].
The ancient Greeks, who believed that the
muses were the source of all inspiration, actually had no terms corresponding to "to create" or "creator." The expression
"poiein" ("to make") sufficed. The sole exception to this Greek view was
poetry. The poet made new things â€" brought to life a new world â€" while the merely
imitated.
In Rome, these Greek concepts were partly shaken.
Horace wrote that not only poets but painters as well were entitled to the privilege of daring whatever they wished to.
Latin was richer than
Greek: it had a term for "creating" (
"creatio") and for "creator," and had two expressions for "to make" â€"
"facere" and
"creare".
A fundamental change, however, came in the
Christian period:
"creatio" came to designate God's act of "creation from nothing".
"Creatio" thus took on a different meaning than
"facere" ("to make"), and ceased to apply to human functions. The ancient view that art is not a domain of creativity persisted in this period.
This changed in more modern times.
Renaissance men had a sense of their own independence, freedom and creativity, and sought to give voice to this sense of independence and creativity.
Baltasar Gracián (
1601-
1658) wrote: "Art is the completion of nature, as it were
a second Creator...". By the
18th century, the concept of creativity was appearing more often in art theory, and was linked with the concept of
imagination.
In the
19th century, not only was art regarded as creativity, but
it alone was so regarded. When later, at the turn of the
20th century, there began to be discussion as well of creativity in the sciences (e.g.,
Jan Åukasiewicz,
1878-
1956) and in nature (e.g.,
Henri Bergson), this was generally taken as the transference to the sciences of concepts proper to art.
The formal starting point of the scientific study of creativity is sometimes considered to be
J. P. Guilford's address to the
American Psychological Association in 1950, which helped to popularize the topic
[(Sternberg, 1999)]. Since then (and indeed, before then), researchers from a variety of fields have studied the nature of creativity from a scientific point of view. Others have taken a more pragmatic approach, teaching practical
creativity techniques. Three of the most well known are
Alex Osborn's
brainstorming techniques (1950s to present),
Genrikh Altshuller's Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (
TRIZ), (1950s to present); and
Edward de Bono's
lateral thinking, (1960s to present).
Creativity in art & literature
Most people associate creativity with the fields of
art and
literature. In these fields,
originality is considered to be a sufficient condition for creativity, unlike other fields where both
originality and
appropriateness are necessary
[(Amabile, 1998)].
Within the different modes of artistic expression, one can postulate a continuum extending from "
interpretation" to "innovation". Established
artistic movements and
genres pull practitioners to the "interpretation" end of the scale, whereas original thinkers strive towards the "innovation" pole. Note that we conventionally expect some "creative" people (dancers, actors, orchestral members, etc.) to perform (interpret) while allowing others (writers, painters, composers, etc.) more freedom to express the new and the different.
The word "creativity" conveys an implication of constructing
novelty without relying on any existing constituent components (
ex nihilo - compare
creationism). Contrast alternative theories, for example:
* artistic
inspiration, which provides the transmission of
visions from divine sources such as the
Muses; a taste of the Divine. Compare with
invention.
* artistic
evolution, which stresses obeying established ("classical") rules and imitating or
appropriating to produce subtly different but unshockingly understandable work. Compare with
crafts.
In the
art practice and
theory of
Davor Dzalto,
human creativity is taken as a basic feature of both the personal
existence of
human being and
art production.
Creativity in psychology & cognitive science
The study of the mental representations and processes underlying creative thought belongs to the domains of
psychology and
cognitive science.
A
psychodynamic approach to understanding creativity was proposed by
Sigmund Freud, who suggested that creativity arises as a result of frustrated desires for fame, fortune, and love, with the energy that was previously tied up in frustration and emotional tension in the neurosis being sublimated into creative activity. Freud later retracted this view.
Graham Wallas, in his work
Art of Thought, published in 1926, presented one of the first models of the creative process. In the Wallas stage model, creative insights and illuminations may be explained by a process consisting of 5 stages:
(i)
preparation (preparatory work on a problem that focuses the individual's mind on the problem and explores the problem's dimensions),
(ii)
incubation (where the problem is internalized into the subconscious mind and nothing appears externally to be happening),
(iii)
intimation (the creative person gets a 'feeling' that a solution is on its way),
(iv)
illumination or insight (where the creative idea bursts forth from its subconscious processing into conscious awareness); and
(v)
verification (where the idea is consciously verified, elaborated, and then applied).
In numerous publications, Wallas' model is just treated as four stages, with "intimation" seen as a sub-stage. There has been some empirical research looking at whether, as the concept of "incubation" in Wallas' model implies, a period of interruption or rest from a problem may aid creative problem-solving. Ward
[(Ward, 2003)] lists various hypotheses that have been advanced to explain why incubation may aid creative problem-solving, and notes how some empirical evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that incubation aids creative problem-solving in that it enables "forgetting" of misleading clues. Absence of incubation may lead the problem solver to become
fixated on inappropriate strategies of solving the problem
[(Smith, 1981)]. This work disputes the earlier hypothesis that creative solutions to problems arise mysteriously from the unconscious mind while the conscious mind is occupied on other tasks
[(Anderson, 2000)].
Wallas considered creativity to be a legacy of the
evolutionary process, which allowed humans to quickly adapt to rapidly changing environments. Simonton
[(Simonton, 1999)] provides an updated perspective on this view in his book,
Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity.
Guilford[(Guilford, 1967)] performed important work in the field of creativity, drawing a distinction between
convergent and divergent production (commonly renamed convergent and divergent thinking). Convergent thinking involves aiming for a single, correct solution to a problem, whereas divergent thinking involves creative generation of multiple answers to a set problem. Divergent thinking is sometimes used as a synonym for creativity in psychology literature. Other researchers have occasionally used the terms
flexible thinking or
fluid intelligence, which are roughly similar to (but not synonymous with) creativity.
In
The Act of Creation,
Arthur Koestler[(Koestler, 1964) and various imprints] lists three types of creative individual - the
Artist, the
Sage and the
Jester. Believers in this trinity hold all three elements necessary in
business and can identify them all in "truly creative"
companies as well. Koestler introduced the concept of
bisociation - that creativity arises as a result of the intersection of two quite different frames of reference.
In 1992 Finke et al. proposed the 'Geneplore' model, in which creativity takes place in two phases: a generative phase, where an individual constructs mental representations called preinventive structures, and an exploratory phase where those structures are used to come up with creative ideas. Weisberg
[(Weisberg, 1993)] argued, by contrast, that creativity only involves ordinary cognitive processes yielding extraordinary results.
Creativity and madness
A study by the psychologist
J. Philippe Rushton found that creativity correlated with
intelligence and
psychoticism[(Rushton, 1990)]. Additionally, a different study found that creativity is greater in
schizotypal individuals than either normal or fully
schizophrenic individuals. While divergent thinking was associated with bilateral activation of the
prefrontal cortex, schizotypal individuals were found to have much greater activation of their
right prefrontal cortex
[http://exploration.vanderbilt.edu/news/news_schizotypes.htm (Actual paper)]. This study hypothesizes that these individuals are better at accessing both hemispheres, allowing them to make novel associations at a faster rate. In agreement with this hypothesis,
ambidexterity is also associated with
schizotypal and
schizophrenic individuals. Creativity has also been associated with
bipolar disorder.
Creative industries & services
Today, creativity forms the core activity of a growing section of the
global economy — the so-called "
creative industries" — capitalistically generating (generally non-tangible)
wealth through the creation and
exploitation of
intellectual property or through the provision of
creative services. The
Creative Industries Mapping Document 2001 provides an overview of the creative industries in the UK.
Creativity in other professions
|
Isaac Newton's law of gravity is popularly attributed to a creative leap he experienced when observing a falling apple. |
Creativity is also seen as being important in a variety of other professions.
Architecture and
industrial design are the fields most often associated with creativity, and more generally the fields of
design and
design research. These fields explicitly value creativity, and journals such as
Design Studies have published many studies on creativity and creative problem solving.
[for a typical example see (Dorst et al., 2001)]Fields such as
science and
engineering have, by contrast, experienced a less explicit (but arguably no less important) relation to creativity. Simonton
[(Simonton, 1999)] shows how some of the major scientific advances of the 20th century can be attributed to the creativity of individuals. This ability will also be seen as increasingly important for engineers in years to come
[(National Academy of Engineering 2005)].
Accounting has also been associated with creativity with the popular euphemism
creative accounting. Although this term often implies unethical practices, Amabile
[(Amabile, 1998)] has suggested that even this profession can benefit from the (ethical) application of creative thinking.
Creativity and innovation
In many cases in the context of examining creativity in organizations, it is useful to explicitly distinguish between
creativity and
innovation.
In such cases, the term
innovation is often used to refer to the entire process by which an organization generates creative new ideas and converts them into novel, useful and viable commercial products, services, and business practices, while the term
creativity is reserved to apply specifically to the generation of novel ideas by individuals, as a necessary step within the innovation process.
For example, Amabile et al. suggest that while
innovation "begins with creative ideas,":". . . creativity by individuals and teams
is a starting point for innovation; the first is a necessary
but not sufficient condition for the second".
[(Amabile et al., 1996 p. 1154-1155, emphasis added)]Creativity in organizations
Amabile
[(Amabile, 1998)] argued that to enhance creativity in business, three components were needed: Expertise (technical, procedural & intellectual knowledge), Creative thinking skills (how flexibly and imaginatively people approach problems), and Motivation (especially
intrinsic motivation).
In the early 20th century,
Joseph Schumpeter introduced the economic theory of
creative destruction, to describe the way in which old ways of doing things are endogenously destroyed and replaced by the new.
Creativity is also seen by economists such as
Paul Romer as an important element in the recombination of elements to produce new technologies and products and, consequently, economic growth. Creativity leads to
capital, and creative products are protected by
intellectual property laws.
Creativity is also an important aspect to understanding
Entrepreneurship.
The
creative class is seen by some to be an important driver of modern economies. In his 2002 book
The Rise of the Creative Class,
economist Richard Florida popularized the notion that regions with high concentrations of creative people such as hi-tech workers, artists, musicians, gay men and a group he describes as "high bohemians", tend to have a higher level of economic development.
Creativity Quotient
Several attempts have been made to develop a
creativity quotient of an individual similar to the
Intelligence quotient (IQ), however these have been unsuccessful
[(Kraft, 2005)]. Most measures of creativity are dependent on the personal judgement of the tester, so a standardized measure is difficult to develop.
Psychometric approach
J. P. Guilford's group
[(Guilford, 1967)], who pioneered the modern
psychometric study of creativity, constructed several tests to measure creativity:
* Plot Titles, where participants are given the plot of a story and asked to write original titles.
* Quick Responses is a word-association test scored for uncommonness.
* Figure Concepts, where participants were given simple drawings of objects and individuals and asked to find qualities or features that are common by two or more drawings; these were scored for uncommonness.
* Unusual Uses is finding unusual uses for common everyday objects such as bricks.
* Remote Associations, where participants are asked to find a word between two given words (e.g. Hand _____ Call)
* Remote Consequences, where participants are asked to generate a list of consequences of unexpected events (e.g. loss of gravity)
Building on Guilford's work,
Torrance[(Torrance, 1974)] developed the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. They involved simple tests of divergent thinking and other problem-solving skills, which were scored on:
*
Fluency. The total number of interpretable, meaningful, and relevant ideas generated in response to the stimulus.
*
Flexibility. The number of different categories of relevant responses.
*
Originality. The statistical rarity of the responses among the test subjects.
*
Elaboration. The amount of detail in the responses.
Social-personality approach
Some researchers have taken a social-personality approach to the measurement of creativity. In these studies, personality traits such as independence of judgement, self-confidence, attraction to complexity, aesthetic orientation and risk-taking are used as measures of the creativity of individuals
[(Sternberg, 1999)]. Other researchers
[for example McCrae (1987)] have related creativity to the
trait,
openness to experience.
Other approaches to measurement
Genrich Altshuller in the
1950s introduced approaching creativity as an
exact science with
TRIZ and a
Level-of-Invention measure.
The creativity of thousands of Japanese, expressed in terms of their problem-solving and problem-recognizing capabilities, has been measured in Japanese firms
[Details: http://iccincsm.at.infoseek.co.jp].
Daniel Pink, in his 2005 book
A Whole New Mind, repeating arguments posed throughout the 20th Century, argues that we are entering a new age where creativity is becoming increasingly important. In this
conceptual age, we will need to foster and encourage
right-directed thinking (representing creativity and emotion) over
left-directed thinking (representing logical, analytical thought).
Nickerson
[(Nickerson, 1999)] provides a summary of the various creativity techniques that have been proposed. These include approaches that have been developed by both academia and industry:# Establishing purpose and intention# Building basic skills# Encouraging acquisitions of domain-specific knowledge# Stimulating and rewarding curiosity and exploration# Building motivation, especially internal motivation# Encouraging confidence and a willingness to take risks# Focusing on mastery and self-competition# Promoting supportable beliefs about creativity# Providing opportunities for choice and discovery# Developing self-management (metacognitive skills)# Teaching techniques and strategies for facilitating creative performance# Providing balance
Some see the conventional system of
schooling as "stifling" of creativity and attempt (particularly in the
pre-school/
kindergarten and early school years) to provide a creativity-friendly, rich, imagination-fostering environment for young children. Compare
Waldorf School.
A growing number of pop psychologists are making money off the idea that one can learn to become more "creative". Several different researchers have proposed approaches to prop up this idea, ranging from
psychological-cognitive, such as:
* Osborn-Parnes
Creative Problem Solving*
Synectics;
* Purdue Creative Thinking Program;
* Linear and Intuitive Thinkertoys (courtesy of Michael Michalko); and
*
lateral thinking (courtesy of
Edward de Bono),to the highly-structured, such as:
*
TRIZ (the Theory of Inventive Problem-Solving);
*
ARIZ (the
Algorithm of Inventive Problem-Solving), both developed by the Russian scientist
Genrich Altshuller; and
* Computer-Aided
Morphological analysis (presented at
Swedish Morphological Society).
"The man who invented fire was probably burned at the stake." Ayn Rand"To be creative means to become profoundly individualized thus separating one's self from the crowd." Paul PalnikAlthough the benefits of creativity to society as a whole have been noted[(Runco 2004)], social attitudes about this topic remain divided. The wealth of literature regarding the development of creativity[see (Feldman, 1999) for example], and the profusion of creativity techniques, indicate wide acceptance, at least among academics, that creativity is desirable.
There is, however, a dark side to creativity, in that it represents a "quest for a radical autonomy apart from the constraints of social responsibility"[(McLaren, 1999)]. In other words, by encouraging creativity we are encouraging a departure from society's existing norms and values. Expectation of conformity runs contrary to the spirit of creativity. Nevertheless, employers are increasingly valuing creative skills. A report by the Business Council of Australia, for example, has called for a higher level of creativity in graduates[(BCA, 2006)]. The ability to "think outside the box" is highly sought after. However, the above-mentioned paradox may well imply that firms pay lipservice to thinking outside the box while maintaining traditional, hierarchical organization structures in which individual creativity is not rewarded.
Ambivalence to creativity in the West may perhaps be due to the prevailing culture's image of creativity; the ingestion of drugs to generate visions; the celebration of eccentric behaviour; a possible cross-over between creativity and mental illness; the often bohemian sexual tastes of artists; the culture's association of artists with a life of poverty and misery.The neurology of creativity has been discussed by Fred Balzac in an article on "Exploring the Brain's Role in Creativity" [(NeuroPsychiatry Reviews, May 2006)].
Albert Einstein recognized that a useful approach to understanding the brain's role in creativity is to study the brains of highly-creative persons, and he willed that upon his death, before his body was cremated, his brain be removed for examination. Unfortunately, nearly all the 240 blocks into which it had been dissected were lost and never analyzed. Thirty years later, when the Brodmann's area 39 portion was analyzed histologically, it was found to contain an unusually high proportion of glial cells to neurons. Kenneth M. Heilman, M.D., has suggested that this high ratio was an indication of a high degree of "connectivity."
According to Heilman, connectivity is a key component of "creative innovation," a concept that combines two of the four stages of creativity â€" incubation and illumination (the other two are preparation and verification) â€" that were identified in the 19th century by Hermann Helmholtz.
Heilman and two medical colleagues have defined "creative innovation" as "the ability to understand and express novel orderly relationships." This requires high general intelligence, domain-specific knowledge, special skills, and "divergent thinking" (the ability to develop alternative solutions). But, in addition, creative innovation may require coactivation and communication between regions of the brain that ordinarily are not strongly connected.
Creative individuals such as Einstein may have alterations of specific regions of the brain's posterior neocortical region.
It has also been observed that creative innovation often occurs during times of diminished arousal (e.g., sleep) and that many well-known creative people have experienced depression. Both these observations suggest that alterations of neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine may play a critical role in creativity.
Thus, highly-creative individuals may be endowed with brains that are capable of storing extensive specialized knowledge in their temporoparietal cortex, be capable of frontal-mediated divergent thinking, and have a special ability to modulate the frontal lobe-locus coeruleus (norepinephrine) system, such that during creative innovation cerebral levels of norepinephrine diminish, leading to the discovery of novel orderly relations.
According to Heilman, "To be creative, people need to break away from what they have been taught to believe, and thus divergent thinking is a critical element of creativity. Patients who have their frontal lobe[s] removed or injured cannot perform divergent thinking. [C]reativity... depend[s] upon the ability to diverge and then form innovative solutions."
The development of innovative solutions depends on the ability to coativate anatomically distinct representational networks that store different forms of knowledge.
Many persons who are very creative show a higher incidence of mood and addiction disorders. While many neurologic disorders can reduce creativity, there are some that might enhance it. An example was a series of patients with frontotemporal dementia who acquired new artistic abilities despite deterioration in their left anterior temporal lobes. These persons with no prior history of artistic production became creative â€" perhaps because the deterioration on their left side "disinhibited" their right side, which then became artistically creative.
To arrive at a creative solution to a persistently insoluble problem, a person often must change the approach by which he has been attempting to solve the problem â€" must "think outside the box." In 1890, William James expressed the view that the ability to switch strategies is integral to divergent thinking. In 1931, Charles Spearman suggested that creativity results from bringing together two or more ideas that previously have been isolated.
A number of scientists have reported solving a difficult problem while asleep or when falling asleep or waking from sleep.
There is also an association between creativity and novelty-seeking and high rates of alcoholism, drug abuse, bipolar depression, and unipolar depression among creative types such as writers, composers, musicians, and fine artists. This raises the question of whether treatment of depression and bipolar disorder affects creativity.
It is likely that creativity can be "encouraged." It has been known for decades that when young rodents are placed in a stimulating environment, they develop a much richer neural network. Bringing up children in an enriched environment and making certain that they receive a good education is important to their brain development.
The frontal lobes appear to be the part of the cortex that is most important for creativity, in that they are critical for divergent thinking and might modulate the coactivation of diverse cognitive networks important to innovation. The development of the frontal lobes can be promoted by encouraging independent and divergent thinking.
There may be a limit to the extent to which creativity can be enhanced neuropharmacologically. There may be a price to be paid for thus altering a person's homeostasis.
The findings of contemporary neurology regarding the nature of creativity provide a physical substrate for manifestations of a paradigm of paradigms concerning creativity â€" concerning innovative thought â€" based on recombinant conceptualization. New concepts, sometimes entire new fields of study or practice, arise from cross-fertilization between fields that previously had not been linked. (The appearance, in a new context â€" in another person's or group's work â€" of elements from an earlier context, is referred to as an "influence" â€" etymologically, a "flowing in" of those elements.) It is, in turn, recombinant conceptualization that accounts for the striking phenomenon of multiple independent discoveries.*
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* *Creativity techniques
*Design
*Creatology
*Flow
*Intelligence (trait)
*Innovation
*Artificial Creativity
*Educational psychology
The following terms are sometimes used interchangeably with creativity, although each has slightly different meanings: creative problem solving, invention, ideation, ingenuity, imagination, inspiration, intuition, insight, originality.
*Creativity Portal - Explores the multi-faceted world of creativity through articles and coaching modules on the creative process, inspiration, imagination, and play.
*Creative Illuminations - Explore and expand your creativity. Resources list, free personal coaching, and more.
*The Mischief Makers - Creative art and activism collective from Nottingham, UK.
*Explore, Express and Discuss "Inherent Creative Ability"
*Creativity Techniques
*A wiki for Creativity Techniques
* General Morphological Analysis: A General Method for Non-Quantified Modelling From the Swedish Morphological Society
* Creativity & Innovation Tube line - a novel visual representation of the creativity & innovation process
* Global Dharma Center - Website of a non-profit organisation working on the field of Creativity, Business and Spiritual Values. Provides free downloads in the form of research publications, training modules, articles etc on the above mentioned themes.
* About Fritz Zwicky From the Swedish Morphological Society
* Knowledge Machine - Online book with chapters on creativity including 1) creativity fallacies, 2) the sum of creative method, and 3) intelligence, genius, creativity, and knowledge creation
* International Centre for Creativity and Imagination - Articles and resources about creativity, purpose and work
* The Creativity Force - Writings about creativity, education, democracy and more
Essays:
* The Creative Act by Marcel Duchamp. (1957)
*Metaphor and Mental Duality
*Creativity: Method or Magic?
