Gemara
The
Gemara (also
Gemorah) (
'מרא - from
gamar:
Hebrew "[to] complete";
Aramaic "[to] study") is that part of the
Talmud that contains rabbinical commentaries and analysis of the core component, the
Mishnah. After this core text was finalized by
Rabbi Judah the Prince (c.
200 CE), it was studied exhaustively by generation after generation of rabbis in
Babylonia and the
Land of Israel. Their discussions were written down in the series of books that became the Gemara, which when combined with the Mishnah completes the Talmud.
There are two recensions of the Gemara, one compiled by the scholars of the Land of Israel (primarily in the academies of
Tiberias and
Caesarea, completed c.
350-
400 CE), and the other by those of Babylonia (primarily in the academies of
Sura,
Pumbedita, and
Mata Mehasia, completed c.
500 CE). In general, the terms "Gemara" or "Talmud," without further qualification, refer to the Babylonian recension.
The Gemara and the Mishnah together make up the
Talmud. The Talmud thus comprises two components: the Mishnah - the core text; and the
gemara - analysis and commentary which "completes" the Talmud (from
gamar 'מר,:
Hebrew "[to] complete";
Aramaic "[to] study"); see
Structure of the Talmud.
The rabbis of the Mishnah are known as
Tannaim (sing.
Tanna תנא). The rabbis of the Gemara are referred to as
Amoraim (sing.
Amora אמורא).
Because there are two Gemaras, there are in fact two Talmuds: the
Palestinian Talmud (Hebrew: תלמו" ירושלמי, "Jerusalem Talmud"), and the
Babylonian Talmud (Hebrew: תלמו" בבלי), corresponding to the Jerusalem (or Palestinian) Gemara and the Babylonian Gemara; both share the same Mishnah. The Jerusalem Gemara is written in Western
Aramaic, while the Babylonian Gemara is written in Eastern Aramaic. The Mishna is in
Hebrew.
The analysis of the
Amoraim is generally focused on clarifying the positions, words and views of the
Tannaim. These debates and exchanges form the "building-blocks" of the gemara; the name for a passage of gemara is a
sugya (סו'יא; plural
sugyot). A
sugya will typically comprise a detailed
proof-based elaboration of the Mishna. Every aspect of the Mishnaic text is treated as a subject of close investigation. This analysis is aimed at an exhaustive understanding of the Mishna's full meaning.
In the Talmud, a
sugya is presented as a series of responsive
hypotheses and questions - with the Talmudic text as a record of each step in the process of reasoning and derivation. The Gemara thus takes the form of a
dialectical exchange. (By contrast, the
Mishnah states
concluded legal opinions - and often differences in opinion between the Tannaim. There is little dialogue.) The disputants here are termed the
makshan (questioner) and
tartzan (answerer).
The
gemara records the
semantic disagreements between
Tannaim and
Amoraim. Some of these debates were actually conducted by the
Amoraim, though most of them are hypothetically reconstructed by the Talmud's redactors. (Often imputing a view to an earlier authority as to how he may have answered a question: "This is what Rabbi X could have argued...") Rarely are debates formally closed.
The distinctive character of the
gemara derives largely from the intricate use of argumentation and debate, described above. In each
sugya, either participant may cite scriptural, Mishnaic and Amoraic proof to build a
logical support for their respective opinions. The process of deduction required to derive a conclusion from a prooftext is often logically complex and indirect. "Confronted with a statement on any subject, the Talmudic student will proceed to raise a series of questions before he satisfies himself of having understood its full meaning." [
1]. This
analysis is often described as "mathematical" in approach;
Adin Steinsaltz makes the analogy of the
Amoraim as
scientists investigating the
Halakha, where the
Tanakh,
Mishnah,
Tosefta and
midrash are the
phenomena studied.
Prooftexts
Prooftexts quoted to corroborate or disprove the respective opinions and
theories will include:
*verses from the
Tanakh: the exact language employed is regarded as significant;
*other
mishnayot: cross-references to analogous cases, or to parallel reasoning by the
Tanna in question;
Beraitot - non-mishnaic sources of
halakha (lit. outside material; sing. beraita ברייתא):
**references to opinions and cases in the
Tosefta (תוספתא);
**references to the
Halakhic Midrash (
Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre);
*cross-references to other
sugyot: again to analogous cases or logic.
Questions
The actual debate will usually centre on the following categories:
Language
Why does the Mishna use one word rather than another? If a statement is not clear enough, the Gemara seeks to clarify the Mishna's intention.
Logic
Exploring the logical principles underlying the Mishnah's statements, and showing how different understandings of the Mishnah's reasons could lead to differences in their practical application. What underlying principle is entailed in a statement of fact or in a specific instance brought as an illustration? If a statement appears obvious, the Gemara seeks the logical reason for its necessity. It seeks to answer under which circumstances a statement is true, and what qualifications are permissible. All statements are examined for internal consistency.
Legal
Resolving contradictions, perceived or actual, between different statements in the Mishnah, or between the Mishnah and other traditions; e.g., by stating that: two conflicting sources are dealing with differing circumstances; or that they represent the views of different Rabbis. Do certain authorities differ or not? If they do, why do they differ? If a principle is presented as a generalization, the gemara clarifies how much is included; if an exception, how much is excluded.
Biblical exposition
Demonstrating how the Mishnah's rulings or disputes, derive from interpretations of Biblical texts. From where in the
Torah does the Mishnah derive a particular law? See
The thirteen rules by which Jewish law was derived.
*
Oral law in Judaism*
Jerusalem Talmud*
Daf Yomi*
The Kallah MonthSources
*
Gemara, jewishencyclopedia.com
*
Talmudic Method,
Harry Austryn Wolfson*
Gemara, Prof. Eliezer Segal
Maimonides introduction to the Mishneh Torah see
English translation at Mechon-Mamre*"The Talmud",
Adin Steinsaltz, Jason Aronson; 1994
*"Introduction to The Talmud and Midrash" H.L. Strack and G. Stemberger, Fortress Press
*"The infinite chain : Torah, masorah, and man" Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo, Targum Press Distributed by Philipp Feldheim; 1989
Resources
*
point by point summary and discussion of the Gemara*
Daf-A-Week: A project to study a daf per week*
The Complete Babylonian Talmud (Aramaic/Hebrew) as scanned images of the pages.
*
The Complete Babylonian Talmud (Aramaic/Hebrew) as text. (Also available from
other sites)
