Ideology
An
ideology is an organized collection of ideas. The word
ideology was coined by Count
Destutt de Tracy in the late
18th century to define a "
science of
ideas." An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things (compare
Weltanschauung), as in common sense (see
Ideology in everyday society) and several
philosophical tendencies (see
Political ideologies), or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to all members of this society.
(For the
Marxist definition of
ideology see
Ideology as an instrument of social reproduction)
In public discussions, some ideas seem to arise more commonly than others. Indeed, often completely separate people may be found to think alike in startling ways. For social scientists, one way of explaining such instances of common opinion is the presence of an ideology.
Every
society has an ideology that forms the basis of the "public opinion" or
common sense, a basis that usually remains invisible to most people within the society. This
dominant ideology appears as "neutral", holding to assumptions that are largely unchallenged. Meanwhile, all other ideologies that differ from the dominant ideology are seen as radical, no matter what the content of their actual vision may be. The philosopher
Michel Foucault wrote about the concept of apparent ideological neutrality. Ideology is not the same thing as philosophy. Philosophy is a way of living life, meanwhile ideology is an almost ideal way of life for society. Some attribute to ideology positive characteristics like vigor and fervor; or negative features like excessive certitude and fundamentalist rigor.
Organisations that strive for
power will try to influence the ideology of a society to become closer to what they want it to be. Political organisations (
governments included) and other groups (e.g. lobbyists) try to influence people by broadcasting their opinions.
When most people in a society think alike about certain matters, or even forget that there are alternatives to the current state of affairs, we arrive at the concept of
Hegemony, about which the philosopher
Antonio Gramsci wrote. The much smaller scale concept of
groupthink also owes something to his work. Modern linguists study the mechanism of
conceptual metaphor, by which this 'thinking alike' is thought to be transmitted.
Perhaps the most accessible source for the original meaning of "ideology" is
Hippolyte Taine's work on the
Ancien Regime (first volume of "Origins of Contemporary France"). He describes ideology as rather like teaching philosophy by the
Socratic method, but without extending the vocabulary beyond what the general reader already possessed, and without the examples from observation which practical science would require. Taine identifies it not just with Destutt de Tracy, but with his milieu, and includes
Condillac as one of its precursors.
The word "ideology" was coined long before the Russians coined "intelligentsia", or before the adjective "intellectual" referred to a sort of person (a
substantive). Thus these words were not around when the hard-headed, driven
Napoleon Bonaparte took the word "ideologues" to ridicule his intellectual opponents. Gradually, however, the term "ideology" has dropped some of its critical sting, and has become a neutral term in the analysis of differing political opinions. Ideological references are important to many people throughout the world
Meta-ideology is the study of the structure, form, and manifestation of ideologies. Meta-ideology posits that ideology is a
coherent system of ideas, relying upon a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis, but are subjective choices that serve as the seed around which further thought grows. According to this perspective, ideologies are neither right nor wrong, but only a relativistic intellectual strategy for categorizing the world. The pluses and minuses of ideology range from the vigor and fervor of true believers to ideological infallibleness. Excessive need for certitude lurks at fundamentalist levels in politics, religions, and elsewhere. It is not only the Catholic pope or other believers who consider themselves in some ways infallible.
The works of
George Walford and
Harold Walsby, done under the heading of
systematic ideology, are attempts to explore the relationships between ideology and social systems.
David W. Minar describes six different ways in which the word "ideology" has been used:#As a collection of certain ideas with certain kinds of
content, usually normative;#As the
form or internal logical structure that ideas have within a set;#By the role in which ideas play in
human-social interaction;#By the role that ideas play in the
structure of an organization;#As meaning, whose purpose is
persuasion; and#As the
locus of social interaction, possibly.
For Willard A. Mullins, an ideology is composed of four basic characteristics: it must have power over cognitions; it must be capable of guiding one's evaluations; it must provide guidance towards action; and, as stated above, must be logically coherent. Mullins emphasizes that an ideology should be contrasted with the related (but different) issues of
utopia and
historical myth.
The German philosopher
Christian Duncker called for a "critical reflection of the ideology concept" (2006). In his work, he strove to bring the concept of ideology into the foreground, as well as the closely connected concerns of epistemology and history. In this work, the term ideology is defined in terms of a system of presentations that explicitly or implicitly claim to absolute truth.
Though the word "ideology" is most often found in political discourse, there are many different kinds of ideology:
political,
social,
epistemological,
ethical, and so on.
Ideology as an instrument of social reproduction
Karl Marx proposed a
base/superstructure model of society. The
base refers to the
means of production of society. The
superstructure is formed on top of the base, and comprises that society's ideology, as well as its legal system, political system, and religions. For Marx, the base determines the superstructure. Because the ruling class controls the society's means of production, the superstructure of society, including its ideology, will be determined according to what is in the ruling class's best interests. Therefore the ideology of a society is of enormous importance since it confuses the alienated groups and can create 'false consciousness' such as the fetish for commodities. Critics of the Marxist approach feel that it attributes too much importance to economic factors in influencing society.
The ideologies of the dominant class of a society are proposed to all members of that society in order to make the ruling class' interests appear to be the interests of all.
György Lukács describes this as a projection of the
class consciousness of the ruling class, while
Antonio Gramsci advances the theory of
cultural hegemony to explain why people in the
working-class can have a false conception of their own interests.
The dominant forms of ideology in capitalism are (in chronological order):#
classical liberalism#
social democracy#
neo-liberalismand they correspond to the stages of development of capitalism:#
extensive stage#
intensive stage#
contemporary capitalism (or
late capitalism, or current crisis)
The Marxist view of ideology as an instrument of social reproduction has been an important touchstone for the
sociology of knowledge and theorists such as
Karl Mannheim,
Daniel Bell and
Jürgen Habermas amongst many others. However, Mannheim attempted to move beyond what he saw as the 'total' but 'special' Marxist conception of ideology to a 'general' and 'total' conception which acknowledged that all ideologies resulted from social life (including Marxism). This idea has been extensively developed by
Pierre Bourdieu.
Louis Althusser's Ideological State Apparatuses
Louis Althusser proposed a materialist conception of ideology, which made use of a special type of discourse: the
lacunar discourse. A number of propositions, which are never untrue, suggest a number of other propositions, which are. In this way, the essence of the lacunar discourse is what is
not told (but is suggested).
For example, the statement 'All are equal before the law', which is a theoretical groundwork of current legal systems, suggests that all people may be of equal worth or have equal 'opportunities'. This is not true, because the concept of
private property over the
means of production results in some people being able to own more (
much more) than others, and their property brings power and influence (the rich can afford better lawyers, among other things, and this puts in question the principle of equality before the law).
Althusser also invented the concept of
Ideological State Apparatuses to explain his theory of ideology. His first thesis was that
"Ideology has no history": since the
epistemological break is a continuous process, and not a determined event, science and philosophy must always struggle against ideology, which is, according to Marx, defined as the reproduction of the possibilities of production. His second thesis,
"Ideas are material", explains his materialist attitude, which he illustrated with the "scandalous advice" of
Pascal toward unbelievers: "kneel and pray, and then you will believe", thus reversing the primacy of idealism toward materialism. However, this mustn't be misunderstood as simple
behaviorism, as there may be, as
Pierre Macherey put it, a "subjectivity without
subject"; in other words, a form of non-personal
liberty, as in
Deleuze's conception of becoming-other.
Feminism as critique of ideology
Naturalizing socially constructed patterns of behavior has always been an important mechanism in the production and reproduction of ideologies.
Feminist theorists have paid close attention to these mechanisms.
Adrienne Rich e.g. has shown how to understand
motherhood as a social institution.
:''Main article:
Political ideologyIn
social studies, a political ideology is a certain
ethical, set of
ideals, principles,
doctrines,
myths or
symbols of a
social movement,
institution,
class, or large group that explain how society should work, and offer some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate
power and to what ends it should be used. It can be a construct of political thought, often defining
political parties and their policy.Studies of the concept of ideology itself (rather than specific ideologies) have been carried out under the name of
systematic ideology.
Political ideologies regard policies of many different aspects of a society, the most central of which are:
economy,
education,
criminal law,
management of criminals,
minors,
animals,
environment,
immigration,
eugenics,
race, use of the
military, forced
nationalism, and forced
religion.
List of political ideologies
There are many proposed methods for the classification of political ideologies. See the
political spectrum article for a more in-depth discussion of these different methods (each of whom generates a specific political spectrum).
The following list attempts to divide ideologies into a number of groups; each group contains ideologies that have a certain theme or idea in common. Note that one ideology can belong to several groups, and there is sometimes considerable overlap between related ideologies.
Ideologies emphasizing class struggle
*
Anarchism*
Socialism*
Communism*
Marxism**
Leninism**
Stalinism**
Maoism**
Trotskyism**
Left communism**
Council communism**
Eurocommunism**
Western MarxismIdeologies emphasizing the individual
*
Libertarian socialism**
Anarchism***
Anarcho-syndicalism***
Anarcho-communism***
Christian anarchism***
Individualist anarchism**
Council communism**
Autonomist Marxism**
Social ecology*
Liberalism**
Social liberalism /
New liberalism***
Georgism**
Ordoliberalism**
Classical liberalism**
American liberalism*
Libertarianism**
Anarcho-capitalism**
Neolibertarianism**
Minarchism**
Paleolibertarianism**
GeolibertarianismIdeologies emphasizing the collective
*
Socialism**
Guild socialism**
Participatory economics**
Marxism***
Leninism***
Stalinism***
Maoism***
Trotskyism***
Left communism***
Council communism***
Eurocommunism***
Neo-marxism**
African socialism**
Religious socialism***
Christian socialism**
Democratic socialism**
Infosocialism**
Libertarian socialism**
Utopian socialism*
Social democracy*
Communitarianism*
Communism**
Religious communism***
Christian communism*
Populism*
Feminism*
EcologismIdeologies emphasizing ethnicity or nationality
*
Nationalism**
Zionism*
Regionalism*
Pan-Africanism*
Pan-Arabism*
Ethnic supremacy*
Fascism**
Neo-fascism**
Clerical fascism*
Nazism**
Neo-nazism*
Racism,
RacialismIdeologies emphasizing tradition
*
Christian democracy*
Conservatism**
Liberal conservatism**
Paleoconservatism**
Neoconservatism**
Social conservatismIdeologies based on religion
*
Christian-based ideologies
**
Christian anarchism**
Christian communism**
Christian socialism**
Christian democracy**
Clerical fascism**
Dominionism*
Hindu-based ideologies
**
Hindu nationalism*
Islam-based ideologies
**
Islamism,
Muslim fundamentalism*
Jewish-based ideologies
**
Religious zionism*
Theocracy*
Communalism (South Asia)*
Religious communism*
Religious socialismForeign policy ideologies
*
Internationalism,
Cosmopolitanism*
Pacifism*
Unilateralism*
Just war theory*
Neoconservatism*
RealismOther ideologies
*
Centrism*
Republicanism*
Federalism*
Syndicalism*
Pragmatism*
Environmentalism*
New humanism*
Neoliberalism*
Economic liberalism*
Feminism*
Consistent Life Ethic*
Militarism*
MulticulturalismOne-issue stances
*
Agrarianism*
Animal welfarism*
Euro-scepticism*
Masculism*
Feminism*
Minorities defence,
Minoritarianism*
Pensioners' defence*
Majoritarianism*
EgalitarianismEven when the challenging of existing beliefs is encouraged, as in
science, the dominant
paradigm or
mindset can prevent certain challenges, theories or experiments from being advanced. The
philosophy of science mostly concerns itself with reducing the impact of these prior ideologies so that science can proceed with its primary task, which is (according to science) to create knowledge.
There are critics who view science as an ideology in itself, or being an effective ideology, called
scientism. Some scientists respond that, while the
scientific method is itself an ideology, as it is a collection of ideas, there is nothing particularly wrong or bad about it.
Other critics point out that while science itself is not a misleading ideology, there are some fields of study within science that are misleading. Two examples discussed here are in the fields of ecology and economics.
A special case of science adopted as ideology is that of
ecology, which studies the relationships between living things on Earth.
Perceptual psychologist J. J. Gibson believed that human perception of ecological relationships was the basis of
self-awareness and
cognition itself.
Linguist George Lakoff has proposed a
cognitive science of mathematics wherein even the most fundamental ideas of arithmetic would be seen as consequences or products of human perception - which is itself necessarily evolved within an ecology.
Deep ecology and the modern
ecology movement (and, to a lesser degree,
Green parties) appear to have adopted ecological sciences as a positive ideology.
Some accuse
ecological economics of likewise turning scientific theory into
political economy, although theses in that science can often be tested. The modern practice of
green economics fuses both approaches and seems to be part science, part ideology.
This is far from the only theory of economics to be raised to ideology status - some notable economically-based ideologies include
mercantilism,
social darwinism,
communism,
laissez-faire economics, and "
free trade". There are also current theories of
safe trade and
fair trade which can be seen as ideologies.
* Mullins, Willard A. (1972) "On the Concept of Ideology in Political Science."
The American Political Science Review. American Political Science Association.
* Minar, David M. (1961) "Ideology and Political Behavior",
Midwest Journal of Political Science. Midwest Political Science Association.
*
Christian Duncker:
Kritische Reflexionen des Ideologiebegriffes, 2006, ISBN 1-903343-88-7
* Hawkes, David (2003)
Ideology (2nd ed.), Routledge, ISBN 0-415-29012-0
* Minogue, Kenneth (1985)
Alien Powers: The Pure Theory of Ideology, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0312018606
*
The Strength of an Idea
