Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (
Mongolian:
or ᠥᠪᠦᠷ ᠮᠣᠨᠺᠤᠯᠤᠨ ᠥᠪᠡᠷᠲᠡᠺᠡᠨ ᠵᠠᠰᠠᠬᠤ ᠣᠷᠤᠨ, Öbür Mongghul-un Öbertegen Jasaqu Orun ; ) is a
Mongol autonomous region of the
People's Republic of China.
Inner Mongolia borders, from east to west, the provinces of
Heilongjiang,
Jilin,
Liaoning,
Hebei,
Shanxi,
Shaanxi,
Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and
Gansu, while to the north it borders
Mongolia and
Russia. It has an area of 1.18 million
km² occupying 12% of China's land area, and a population of 23.76 million. The capital is
Hohhot.
In Chinese, the region is known as "Inner Mongolia", where the terms of "Inner/Outer" are derived from
Manchu dorgi/
tulergi. Inner Mongolia is distinct from
Outer Mongolia, which was a term used by the
Republic of China and previous governments to refer to what is now the independent
state of
Mongolia plus the Republic of
Tuva in
Russia. "Inner" and "Outer" imply a perspective centered on China proper and can be construed as being
sinocentric. In modern Chinese, the term "Outer Mongolia" is used less and less in favour of "Mengguguo" ('古国, literally "State of Mongolia").
In Mongolian, the region is known as
öbür monggol where
öbür can mean south, inner, front, bosom, breast. This is probably related to traditional Mongolian and Manchu world view where south (China) is regarded as front, right as west, left as east and north as back. Some Mongolians use the name "Southern Mongolia" in
English as well.
Most of Inner Mongolia consists of high
plateaus and mountain ranges. Eastern Inner Mongolia is dominated by the
Greater Khingan Mountains, while the easternmost parts of Inner Mongolia dips down onto the plains of Manchuria. The central part of Inner Mongolia is dominated by the
Yinshan Mountains and
Langshan Mountains. The
Gobi Desert stretches along the border between Inner Mongolia and independent
Mongolia. Other deserts include the
Mu Us Desert and
Hobq Desert, south of the bend in the
Yellow River, and the
Badain Jaran Desert in the west.
Much of the eastern part of Inner Mongolia is part of the
watersheds of the
Amur and
Liao Rivers. The Yellow River (
Huang He) crosses northwards into central Inner Mongolia, passes near major cities like
Hohhot and
Baotou, before flowing back south. (Due to the inverted-U bend of the Yellow River, this region is known as
Hetao (河套), literally "River wrap".) The rest of central and western Inner Mongolia is not part of any oceanic
watershed and has numerous salt lakes.
The peak of
Mount Helan, part of the
Helan Mountains along the border with
Ningxia, is the highest point in the region with an altitude of 3556 m. The largest freshwater lake is
Lake Hulun, in northeastern Inner Mongolia near both Mongolia and Russia.
In general, the climate is
continental, with long cold winters, with average January temperatures ranging from -23 °C in the northeast to -10 °C in the south. The summers are short, with average July temperatures ranging from 17 °C to 24 °C. The average annual rainfall ranges from less than 50 mm in the north and east to 450 mm in the highlands in the northwest. In recent years,
desertification has become a major environmental problem.
|
The landscape of the Tennger desert in Western Inner Mongolia |
Major cities:
*
Hohhot*
Baotou*
Wuhai*
Chifeng*
TongliaoThroughout most of history, central and western Inner Mongolia, especially the
Hetao region, alternated in control between
Chinese agriculturalists in the south and
Xiongnu,
Xianbei,
Khitan,
Nurchen, and
Mongol nomads of the north. Eastern Inner Mongolia is properly speaking a part of
Manchuria, and its historical narrative consists more of alternations between different groups there rather than the struggle between nomads and Chinese agriculturalists.
During the
Zhou Dynasty, central and western Inner Mongolia (the Hetao region and surrounding areas) were inhabited by nomadic peoples such as the
Loufan,
Linhu, and
Dí, while eastern Inner Mongolia was inhabited by the
Donghu. During the
Warring States Period,
King Wuling (
340 BC-
295 BC) of the
state of Zhao based in what is now
Hebei and
Shanxi provinces pursued an expansionist policy towards the region. After destroying the
Dí state of
Zhongshan in what is now Hebei province, he defeated the
Linhu and
Loufan and created the
commandery of Yunzhong near modern
Hohhot. King Wuling of Zhao also built a long wall stretching through the Hetao region. After
Qin Shihuang created the first unified Chinese empire in
221 BC, he sent the general
Meng Kuo to drive the
Xiongnu from the region, and incorporated the old Zhao wall into the Qin Dynasty Great Wall of China. He also maintained two commanderies in the region:
Jiuyuan and Yunzhong, and moved 30,000 households there to solidify the region. After the Qin Dynasty collapsed in
206 BC, these efforts were abandoned.
During the
Western Han Dynasty,
Emperor Wu sent the general
Wei Qing to reconquer the Hetao region from the Xiongnu in
127 BC. After the conquest, Emperor Wu continued the policy of building settlements in Hetao to defend against the Xiong-Nu. In that same year he established the commanderies of
Shuofang and
Wuyuan in Hetao. At the same time, what is now eastern Inner Mongolia was controlled by the
Xianbei, who would later on eclipse the Xiongnu in power and influence.
During the
Eastern Han Dynasty (
25-
220 AD), Xiongnu who surrendered to the Han Dynasty began to be settled in Hetao, and intermingled with the Han immigrants in the area. Later on during the
Western Jin Dynasty, it was a Xiongnu noble from Hetao,
Liu Yuan, who established the
Han Zhao kingdom in the region, thereby beginning the
Sixteen Kingdoms period that saw the disintegration of northern China under a variety of Han and non-Han (including Xiongnu and Xianbei) regimes.
The
Sui Dynasty (
581-
618) and
Tang Dynasty (
618-
907) re-established a unified Chinese empire, and like their predecessors they conquered and settled people into Hetao, though once again these efforts were aborted when the Tang empire began to collapse. Hetao (along with the rest of what now consists Inner Mongolia) was then taken over by the
Khitan Empire (Liao Dynasty), founded by the
Khitans, a nomadic people originally from what is now the southern part of Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia. They were followed by the
Tangut Empire (Western Xia) of the
Tanguts, which took control of what is now the western part of Inner Mongolia (including western Hetao). The Khitans were later replaced by the
Jurchens, precursors to the modern
Manchus, who established the
Jinn Dynasty over Manchuria and northern China.
Genghis Khan unified the Mongol tribes in
1206, conquered the Tanguts in
1227, the Jurchens in
1234, and his descendents completed his conquest of China in
1279, establishing the
Yuan Dynasty. After the Yuan Dynasty was evicted from China proper by the Han Chinese
Ming Dynasty in
1368, the Ming rebuilt the Great Wall of China at its present location, which roughly follows the southern border of the modern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (though it deviates significantly at the Hebei-Inner Mongolia border).
The Manchus subjugated the Mongols in the early 17th century, then invaded Ming China in
1644, bringing it under the control of their
Qing Dynasty. Under the
Manchu Qing dynasty (
1644-
1912), Mongolia was administered in a different way for each region:
* "Outer Mongolia": The four leagues (
aimag) of the
Khalkha Mongols in northern and central Mongolia, as well as the
Tannu Uriankhai and
Hovd regions in northwestern Mongolia, were overseen by the
General of Uliastay at the city of
Uliastay. This is equivalent to the modern independent state of
Mongolia, the Russian-administered region of
Tannu Uriankhai, and a part of northern
Xinjiang.
* "Inner Mongolia": The
banners and tribes of southern Mongolia came under six
leagues (
chuulghan):
Jirim,
Juu Uda,
Josutu,
Xilingol,
Ulaan Chab, and
Yeke Juu. This is equivalent to most of modern Inner Mongolia and some neighbouring areas in
Liaoning and
Jilin provinces.
* "Taoxi Mongolia": The
Alashan Oolud and
Ejine Torghuud banners were separate from the aimags of Outer Mongolia and the chuulghans of Inner Mongolia. This is equivalent to the westernmost part of modern Inner Mongolia.
* The Chahar
Eight Banners were controlled by the military commander of Chahar (now
Zhangjiakou). Their extent corresponds to southern Ulaan Chab and
Baynnur in modern Inner Mongolia, plus the region around
Zhangjiakou in
Hebei province. At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of
Zhili and
Shanxi provinces also overlapped into this region.
* The
Guihua Tümed banner was controlled by the military commander of Suiyuan (now
Hohhot). This corresponds to the vinicities of the modern city of
Hohhot. At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of
Shanxi province also overlapped into this region.
* The
Hulunbuir region, in what is now northeastern Inner Mongolia, was part of the jurisdiction of the General of
Heilongjiang, one of the three generals of
Manchuria.
Ordinary Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues. While there had been
Han Chinese farmers in what is now Inner Mongolia since the time of
Altan Khan, mass settlement began in the late nineteenth century. The Manchus were becoming increasingly sinicized, and faced with the Russian threat, they began to encourage Han Chinese farmers to settle in both Mongolia and Manchuria. This policy has been followed by subsequent governments. The railroads that were being built in these regions were especially useful to the Han Chinese settlers. Land was either sold by Mongol Princes, or leased to Han Chinese farmers, or simply taken away from the nomads and given to Han Chinese farmers.
During the
Republic of China era, Outer Mongolia, with
Russian support, passed out of Chinese control and became a Soviet satellite. At the same time, Inner Mongolia was reorganized into provinces:
*
Rehe province was created to include the Juu Uda and Josutu leagues, plus the
Chengde area in what is now northern
Hebei.
*
Chahar province was created to include Xilingol league as well as much of the former territory of the Eight Banners.
*
Suiyuan province was created to include Ulaan Chab league, Yeke Juu league, and the Hetao region (former Guihua Tümed territory).
* Hulunbuir stayed within
Heilongjiang in Manchuria, which had become a province.
* Most of Jirim league came under the new province of
Fengtien in southern Manchuria.
* Taoxi Mongolia, i.e. Alashan and Ejine leagues, was incorporated into neighbouring
Gansu province. Later on
Ningxia province was split out of northern Gansu, and Taoxi Mongolia became part of Ningxia.
Some maps in
Taiwan (
Republic of China) still show this structure.
Manchuria came under the control of the Japanese puppet state
Manchukuo in
1931, taking the Mongol areas in the Manchurian provinces (i.e. Hulunbuir and Jirim leagues) along. Rehe was also incorporated into Manchukuo in
1933, taking Juu Uda and Josutu leagues along with it. These areas were administered by Manchukuo until the end of
World War II in
1945.
In
1937, open war broke out between
China and
Japan. On
December 8 1937, Mongolian Prince
De Wang declared the independence of the remaining parts of Inner Mongolia (i.e. the Suiyuan and Chahar provinces) as
Mengkiang or Mengkukuo, and signed close agreements with Manchukuo and Japan, thereby turning Inner Mongolia to a puppet of the Japanese Empire. The capital was established at
Zhangbei (now in
Hebei province), with the puppet government's control extending as far west as the
Hohhot region. In August
1945, Mengkiang was taken by Soviet and Outer Mongolian troops during
Operation August Storm.
Following the end of
World War II, the
Chinese Communists took over most of Manchuria with Soviet support, and established the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in
1947 following
Soviet nationalities policy. Initially the autonomous region included just the Hulunbuir region. Over the next decade, as the communists established the
People's Republic of China and consolidated control over mainland China, Inner Mongolia was expanded westwards to include five of the six original leagues (except Josutu League, which remains in
Liaoning province), the northern part of the Chahar region, by then a league as well (southern Chahar remains in
Hebei province), the Hetao region, and the Alashan and Ejine banners. Eventually, near all areas with sizeable Mongol populations were incorporated into the region, giving present-day Inner Mongolia its elongated shape.
In
1969 during the
Cultural Revolution, much of Inner Mongolia was distributed among surrounding provinces, with Hulunbuir divided between
Heilongjiang and
Jilin, Jirim going to
Jilin, Juu Uda to
Liaoning, and the Alashan and Ejine region divided among
Gansu and
Ningxia. This was reversed in
1979.
There are groups calling for the independence of Inner Mongolia from what they view as
Chinese imperialism; these groups, however, have less influence and support within and outside Inner Mongolia than similar movements in Tibet, Xinjiang, and Taiwan.
Inner Mongolia is divided into 12
prefecture-level divisions, including 9
prefecture-level cities and 3
leagues.
The nine
prefecture-level cities are:
*
Hohhot (呼'浩特市
Hanyu Pinyin: Hūhéhàotè shì)
*
Baotou (包头市 Bāotóu shì)
*
Wuhai (乌海市 Wūhǎi shì)
*
Chifeng (赤峰市 Chìf"ng shì)
*
Tongliao (通辽市 Tōngliáo shì)
*
Ordos (鄂"多斯市 È'ěrduōsī shì)
*
Hulunbuir (呼伦贝"市 Hūlúnbèi'ěr shì)
*
Baynnur (巴彦淖"市 Bāyànnào'ěr shì)
*
Ulaan Chab (乌兰察布市 Wūlánchábù shì)
The three
leagues are:
*
Xilin Gol ("林郭'盟 Xīlínguōlè méng)
*
Alxa (阿拉善盟 Ālāshàn méng)
*
Xing'an (兴安盟 Xīng'ān méng)
Many of the
prefecture-level cities were converted very recently from
leagues. See
League (Inner Mongolia) for more information.
The 12
prefecture-level divisions of Inner Mongolia are subdivided into 101
county-level divisions, including 21
districts, 11
county-level cities, 17
counties, 49
banners, and 3
autonomous banners. Those are in turn divided into 1425
township-level divisions, including 532
towns, 407
townships, 277
sumu, 18
ethnic townships, 1
ethnic sumu, and 190
subdistricts.
See
List of administrative divisions of Inner Mongolia for a complete list of
county-level divisions.
Farming of crops such as
wheat takes precedence along the river valleys. In the more arid grasslands, herding of
goats,
sheep and so on is a traditional method of subsistence.
Forestry and
hunting are somewhat important in the
Daxingan (Greater Khingan) ranges in the east.
Reindeer herding is carried out by
Evenks in the Evenk Autonomous Banner.
Inner Mongolia has abundance of resources especially coal,
cashmere, natural gas,
rare earth elements, and has more deposits of naturally-occurring
niobium,
zirconium and
beryllium than any other
province-level region in China. However in the past, the exploitation and utilisation of resources were rather inefficient, which resulted in poor returns from rich resources. Inner Mongolia is also an important coal production base in north China. It plans to double annual coal output by 2010 (from the 2005 volume of 260 million tons) to 500 million tons of coal a year [
1].
Industry in Inner Mongolia has grown up mainly around coal,
power generation, forestry-related industries, and so forth.Inner Mongolia now laid emphasis on six unique and competitive industries, namely energy, chemicals, metallurgy, equipment manufacturing, processing of farm (including
dairy) produce as well as hi-tech products. Well-known Inner Mongolian enterprises include companies such as
ERDOS,
Yili, and
Mengniu.
The nominal GDP of Inner Mongolia in 2005 was 382.28 billion yuan (US$47.2 billion), a growth of 21.6% from 2004. It was also 120% higher than that in 2000, with an average annual increase of 16.6%. Its per capita GDP exceeded 15,500 yuan (US$1,900). Inner Mongolia's primary, secondary, and tertiary industries were worth 60.01 billion yuan, 168.51 billion yuan, and 153.76 billion yuan respectively. The urban per capita
disposable income and rural per capita net income were 9,130 yuan and 2,980 yuan, up 78% and 46% respectively. [
2] [
3]
Han Chinese are the largest ethnic group, constituting about 80% of the population. While the Hetao region along the Yellow River has always alternated between farmers from the south and nomads from the north, the most recent episode of Han Chinese migration began in the early 18th century with encouragement from the
Manchu Qing Dynasty, and continued into the 20th century. Han Chinese live mostly in the Hetao region as well as various population centres in central and eastern Inner Mongolia.
Mongols are the second largest ethnic group, comprising about 17% of the population. They include many diverse Mongolian-speaking groups; groups such as the
Buryats and the
Oirats are also officially considered to be Mongols in China. Many of the traditionally nomadic Mongols have settled in permanent homes as their pastoral economy was collectivized during the Maoist Era.
Other ethnic groups include the
Daur, the
Evenks, the
Oroqin, the
Hui, the
Manchus, and the
Koreans.
| Ethnic groups in Inner Mongolia, 2000 census | | Nationality | Population | Percentage |
|---|
| Han Chinese | 18,465,586 | 79.17% |
| Mongol | 3,995,349 | 17.13% |
| Manchu | 499,911 | 2.14% |
| Hui | 209,850 | 0.900% |
| Daur | 77,188 | 0.331% |
| Evenks | 26,201 | 0.112% |
| Koreans | 21,859 | 0.094% |
| Russians | 5,020 | 0.022% |
Excludes members of the
People's Liberation Army in active service.
Source: Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics of the National Bureau of Statistics of China (国家统计局人口'社会科技统计司) and Department of Economic Development of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of China (国家民族事务"员会经济发展司), eds.
Tabulation on Nationalities of 2000 Population Census of China (《2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料》). 2 vols. Beijing: Nationalities Publishing House (民族出版社), 2003. (ISBN 7105054255)
See
List of Chinese ethnic groups.
Han Chinese of Inner Mongolia speak a variety of dialects, depending on region. The eastern parts tend to speak
Northeastern China dialects, which belong to the
Mandarin group of dialects; those in the central parts, such as the
Huang He valley, speak varieties of
Jin, another subdivision of Chinese, due to its proximity to other Jin-speaking areas in China, such as
Shanxi province.
Mongols in Inner Mongolia speak a variety of dialects of the
Mongolian language, including Chahar, Bairin, Ordos, Ejin-Alxa, Barghu-Buryat, etc.; the standard pronunciation of Mongolian in China is based on the Chahar dialect of the
Plain Blue Banner, located in central Inner Mongolia. This is different from independent Mongolia, where the standard pronunciation is based on the
Khalkha dialect.
The
Daur,
Evenks, and
Oroqin speak their own respective languages.
The
Mongols of Inner Mongolia practice many traditional forms of art. See also:
Culture of Mongolia,
Music of Mongolia.
Among the
Han Chinese of Inner Mongolia,
Jinju or Shanxi Opera is a popular traditional form of entertainment. See also:
Shanxi.
Siqin Gaowa, a famous actress of China, is an ethnic Mongol native to Inner Mongolia.
A popular career in Inner Mongolia is circus acrobatics. The famous Inner Mongolia Acrobatic Troupe travels and performs with the renowned Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey Circus.
|
The Five Pagoda Temple in Huhhot, a Buddhist temple. |
In the capital city
Hohhot:
Dazhao Temple is a
Lamaist temple built in
1580. Dazhao Temple is known for three sites: a
statue of
Buddha made from
silver, elaborate carvings of
dragons, and
murals.
Xiaozhao Temple, also known as Chongfu temple, is a
Lamaist temple built in
1697 and favoured by the
Qing Dynasty emperor
Kangxi.
Xilituzhao Temple is the largest
Lamaist temple in the Hohhot area, and once the center of power of
Lamaism in the region.
Zhaojun Tomb is the tomb of
Wang Zhaojun, a
Han Dynasty palace lady-in-waiting who became the consort of a
Xiongnu ruler.
Elsewhere in Inner Mongolia:
The
Mausoleum of Genghis Khan, the
cenotaph of
Genghis Khan, is located in
Ordos City.
Bashang Grasslands, on the border close to
Beijing, is a popular retreat for urban residents wanting to get a taste of grasslands life.
Colleges and universities
*
Chifeng University (赤峰学院)
*
Inner Mongolia Agricultural University (内'古农业大学)
*
Inner Mongolia Finance and Economics College (内'古财经学院)
*
Inner Mongolia Medical College (内'古医学院)
*
Inner Mongolia Normal University (内'古师范大学)
*
Inner Mongolia University (内'古大学)
*
Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities (内'古民族大学)
*
Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology (内'古科技大学)
*
Inner Mongolia University of Technology (内'古工业大学)
All of the above are under the authority of the autonomous region government. Institutions without full-time bachelor programs are not listed.
*
People's Government of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (simplified Chinese)
*
Large map of Inner Mongolia*
Inner Mongolia: China Travel Information*
Inner Mongolia University*
MongolCulture.com*
Inner Mongolian People's Party (separatist)
*
Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, NY, NY, USA
