Jainism
Jainism (pronounced in English as //), traditionally known as
Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म), is a
religion and
philosophy originating in
ancient India. Now a minority in modern
India with growing communities in the
United States,
Western Europe,
Africa, the
Far East and elsewhere, Jains have continued to sustain the ancient
Shraman (श्रमण) or
ascetic tradition.
Jainism has significantly influenced the religious,
ethical,
political and economic spheres in India for about three
millennia. Jainism stresses the
spiritual independence and equality of all life with a particular emphasis on
non-violence.
Self-control (व्रत,
vrata) is the means by which Jains attain
moksha,
Keval Gnan, or realization of the soul's true nature.
A lay Jain is termed a
shravak (श्रावक) i.e. a listener. The Jain
Sangha (संघ), or order, has four components:
monks (साधु),
nuns (sadhvi),
lay men (श्रावक) and lay women (shravika).
Jain philosophy is based upon eternal, universal truths, according to its followers. Over a period of time, these truths may lapse among humanity and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached
enlightenment or total knowledge (
Keval Gnan). Traditionally, in our universe and in our time,
Lord Rishabha (ऋषभ or रिषभ) is regarded as the first to realize the truth, ultimately followed by Lord Parshva (877-777 BCE) and Lord Vardhaman
Mahavira (महावीर) (599-527 BCE).
Jainism teaches that every human is responsible for his/her actions and all living beings have an eternal
soul,
jīva. It insists that we live, think and act respectfully and honor the spiritual nature of all life. Jains view
God as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, chiefly described as Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness (Anant Gyän, Anant Darshan, Anant Chäritra, and Anant Sukh). Jainism does not include a belief in an omnipotent supreme being or creator, but rather in an eternal universe governed by natural laws, and the interplay of its attributes (
gunas) of matter (
dravys).
Jain scriptures were written over a long period and the most cited is the
Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Reality written by the monk-scholar,
Umasvati (or Umasvami), more than 18 centuries ago. The primary figures in Jainism are
Tirthankars. Jainism has two main divisions:
Digambar and
Shvetambar and both believe in
ahimsa (or
ahinsā),
asceticism,
karma,
sansar, and
jiva.
Compassion for all life, human and non human, is central to Jainism. Human life is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment; to kill any person, no matter what crime he may have committed, is unimaginably abhorrent. It is the only religion that requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. Some Indian regions have been strongly influenced by Jains and often, the majority of the local non-Jain population has also become vegetarian. History suggests that various strains of
Hinduism became vegetarian due to strong Jain influences. In many towns, Jains run animal shelters, e.g. Delhi has a bird hospital run by a Jain temple.
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A Svetambar Jain worshipping at the Ranakpur temple. The cloth over his face is to prevent spittle or bacteria from from landing on holy images, books or statues of Tirthankars |
Jainism's stance on
nonviolence goes beyond
vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many are vegan due to the violence of modern dairy farms.The orthodox Jain diet excludes most
root vegetables, as they believe this destroys life unnecessarily. Another reason for refusing root vegetables is to avoid destroying entire plants. If you eat apples, you do not destroy whole trees, but for root vegetables, whole plants are uprooted. Garlic and onions are avoided as these are seen as creating passion, meaning anger, hatred, jealousy. Observant Jains do not eat, drink, or travel after sunset (which is called Chauvihar) and always rise before sunrise.
Anekantavada, a foundation of Jain philosophy, literally meaning "Nonsingular Conclusivity", or equivalently, "Non-one-endedness". Anekantavad consists of tools for overcoming inherent biases in any one perspective on a topic, object, process, state, or on reality in general. Another tool is The Doctrine of Postulation,
Syādvāda. Anekantavad is defined as a multiplicity of views for it stresses looking at things from another's perspective.
Jains are traditionally very welcoming and friendly toward other faiths. Several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jains. The Jain
Heggade family has run the Hindu institutions of
Dharmasthala, including the Sri Manjunath Temple, for eight centuries. Jains willingly donate money to churches and mosques and usually help with interfaith functions. Jain monks, like Acharya Tulsi and Acharya Sushil Kumar, actively promoted harmony among rival faiths to defuse tension.
Jains have been a palpable presence in
Indian culture, contributing to
Indian philosophy,
art,
architecture,
sciences, and to
Mohandas Gandhi's
politics, which led to the mainly non-violent movement for
Indian independence.
According to Jain beliefs, the
universe was never born, nor will it ever cease to exist. Time is divided into Utsurpinis (Progressive Time Cycle) and Avsarpinis (Regressive Time Cycle). An Utsurpini and a Avsarpini constitute one Time Cycle (Kalchakra). Every Utsurpini and Avsarpini is divided into six unequal periods known as Aras. During the Utsurpini half cycle, ethics, progress, happiness, strength, age, body, religion, etc., go from the worst conditions to the best. During the Avsapini half-cycle, these notions deteriorate from the best to the worst. Jains believe we are currently in the fifth Ara of the Avsarpini phase, with approximately 19 000 years until the next Ara. After this Avsarpini phase, the Utsurpini phase will begin, continuing the infinite repetition of the Kalchakra.
When this cycle reaches its lowest level (in the current half-cycle: the sixth Ara), Jainism, as well as all religions will be lost in their entirety. During this time, all humans will be sinners; with short life spans, ugly appearances, and no sense of ethics. Due to this, all individuals during this time will be born in Hell. The world will be a rotting wasteland with little food or water. Then, on the next upswing (start of the Utsurpini half-cycle), the Jain religion will be revived and reintroduced by new
Tirthankars (literally "Crossing Makers" or "Ford Finders"), only to be lost again at the end of the next downswing.
In our era, the twenty-third Tirthankar was an
ascetic teacher
Parshva, whose traditional dates are
877-
777 BC, i.e., 250 years before the liberation of the last Tirthankar, Lord
Mahavir, in
527 BC. Jains regard all Tirthankars as reformers who called for a return to beliefs and practices in accord with the eternal universal philosophy upon which the faith is based. The title
Bhagavan ("Lord"), applied to Mahavir and all other Tirthankars, means
Venerable.
The twenty-fourth and final Tirthankar of this Avsarpini is called,
Mahāvīr, the Great Hero (
599-527 BC). A wandering ascetic teacher, he recalled Jains to the rigorous practice of their ancient faith.
Jains believe that reality consists of two eternal principles,
jiva and
ajiva. Jiva consists of infinite identical spiritual units (life); while ajiva (non-jiva) is matter in any form or condition: time, space, and movement.
Both jiva and ajiva are eternal; they are never born or created for the first time and will never cease to exist. The whole world is made up of jivas trapped in ajiva; there are jivas in rocks, plants, insects, animals, human beings, spirits, etc.
Any contact between jiva and ajiva causes the former to suffer and Jains understand that worldly existence inevitably means some suffering. Neither social nor individual reform can totally stop suffering. Every human has jiva which suffers because of its contact with ajiva. To avoid suffering, jiva must leave the four gatis (stages) of Human Life, Heavenly Bodies, Plants/Animals/Insects/Fish Life, and Hell, while remembering the ultimate aim of liberation.
Karma and
transmigration keep jiva locked in ajiva. Liberation from the human condition is difficult. Jiva suffers during its infinite
reincarnations. Jains believe that every action, good or evil, opens up sense channels (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell), through which [karma]] adheres to the jiva within, weighing it down and determining the conditions of its next reincarnation.
The consequence of evil actions (Pap) is negative karma, which weighs the jiva down, forcing it to continue reincarnating at low levels. Good deeds (Punya) lead to positive karma, allowing jiva to rise higher in its next life, with less suffering. However, good deeds alone can never lead to liberation.
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The fylfot (a.k.a. swastika) is among the holiest of Jain symbols. Worshippers use rice grains to create fylfot around the temple altar. |
The way to
moksha (release or liberation) is withdrawal from the world. Karma means cause-and-effect and hence every action has inescapable consequences. All Karmas, good or bad, must be shed to attain
moksha, since all Karma, good or bad, has consequences and keeps jiva chained in endless reincarnations which lead to suffering to a greater or lesser extent. Liberation warrants prevention and eradication of new karma.
At the end of his life, a liberated soul (in the Jain belief, a
Siddha), with no karma to weigh it, will rise free of ajiva, free of the human condition, free of all future embodiments. It will rise to the highest state in the universe,
Siddhashila, where jiva, identical with all other pure jivas, will experience its own true nature in eternal stillness, aloneness, liberation and eternal happiness. The way to discard karma is to withdraw from worldly involvement and close the senses and the mind to prevent karma. Such eternal liberation by freeing Jiva from Pudgala (ajiva), so no new reincarnation occurs, is
Moksha. Ignorance (ajñāna) causes attachment, while true knowledge (keval jñān) leads to liberation. Jains believe that
moksha is possible for humans in the fourth Ara of each Utsurpini and Avsarpini.
S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns and David C. Yu describe Jain cosmology thus:
"In Jain tradition, the first teacher, Rishabh, lived in the third period of Avasarpini, during which half of the world cycle things are getting worse. Since evil had appeared, a teacher/Tirthankara was needed to help people cope with life. In the fourth period, evil proliferated so much that twenty-three more Tirthankaras came into the world to teach people how to defeat evil and achieve moksha. The present time, part of the fifth period, is 'wholly evil.' Now, men live less than 125 years and the sixth epoch will be worse. 'A man's life span will be only sixteen to twenty years and his height will be reduced to that of a dwarf. . . . But then the slow upward movement of the first half of the upward cycle, Utsarpini, will begin. There will be steady improvement until, in the first era, man's needs will be fulfilled by wish fullfilling trees, his height will be six miles, and evil will be unknown.' However, eventually things will degenerate, with Avasarpini followed by Usarpini in a neverending cycle." (McCasland, Cairns, and Yu,
Religions of the World, New York: Random House, 1969: pages 485-486)
The
Digambara sect do not believe that women can achieve
moksha. The
Svetambara sect, actively believes that women can be liberated and a person's gender, or place in the universe is irrelevant to attaining liberation.
The Jain religion places great emphasis on the theory of
Karma. Essentially, it means that all
jivas reap what they sow. A happy or miserable existence is influenced by actions in previous births. These results may not occur in the same life, and what we sow is not limited to physical actions. Physical, verbal, and mental activities play a role in future situations.
Karma has long been an essential component of Jainism, and other Indian religions such as
Buddhism and
Hinduism.
Jainism does not accept the belief that a divine being is responsible for creating pleasant or unpleasant situations. While others may be able to influence one's actions, thus producing
Karma, they, as well as one, are bonded to their own
Karmas.
Karma, however, is much more complicated than simply 'what goes around comes around'. Though this is not false, it is an simplification: there are many in-depth, comprehensive notions that are also important in the Jain philosophy.
A concept in Jain cosmology and science is the classification and manifestation of
Karma. Karmas are constituted of infinitely small "Karman particles". These particles are made up of non-living particles (Pudgals) and are scattered and free-floating across the universe. When the soul acts with a passion such as attachment, anger, deceit, greed, etc., it attracts these. These particles on the soul are
Karma. Now, it will only be detached when the Karmic result is reaped, or shed through
asceticism.
Depending on the nature of their results, Karmas are divided into two main categories, into eight further categories. The two main categories are
Ghäti and
Aghäti karmas. Ghäti means destructive or obscuring. The karmas that obscure the true knowledge of the Soul are called
Ghäti karmas. Karmas that do not obscure the true knowledge of the soul are known as
Aghäti karmas.
Ghäti karmas are divided into four different types of Karma:# Knowledge obscuring (Jnänävaraniya) karma: Obscures the full potential of a soul's knowledge. Those with less karmas are more intelligent and learn more easily. # Perception obscuring (Darshanävarinya) karma: Diminishes the powers of correct perception through the five senses. # Obstructing (Antaräya) karma: Caused by obstructing others' charity, gain or enjoyment.# Deluding (Mohaniya) karma: Creates doubt about religion, spiritual teachers and the
Jina. It causes attachment and passions such as anger, ego, love, deceit and greed. Of all Karmas, deluding karma is the most difficult to overcome. Once this is eradicated, liberation is assured.
Aghäti karmas are of four types:# Feeling producing (Vedaniya) karma: Responsible for pain and pleasure. # Body determining (Näm) karma: Determines the physique that the soul will occupy (i.e. tall, short, beautiful, ugly, etc.).# Status determining (Gotra) karma: Determines social and economic status. # Life Span determining (Äyusha) karma: This Karma occurs at the two-thirds point of a jiv's life and determines the next life. If the jiv is engaged in good deeds, then its next life will be happy. The Jain religion insists that since we do not know that particular point, we should constantly be engaged in religious activities and good deeds. If it is not determined at this point, then the karma will take effect at the two-thirds point of the
remaining time. If it is still not determined, it will assuredly take place at the moments leading up to, and at death. This karma does not take place if the soul is to be liberated in the current life.
The duration and extent of the results of Karma depends on the soul's vigour and passion when they were acquired. Weak vigour and passion result in smaller, shorter results, while stronger vigour and passion result in greater, longer results.
The backbone of the Jain philosophy,the Nine Tattvas show how to attain salvation. Without knowing them, one cannot progress towards liberation. Jainism explains that Karma theory is intertwined with these nine principles.
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The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa, meaning non-violence. The word in the middle is "ahimsa." The wheel represents the dharma-chakra, to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth. |
Jain monks practise strict asceticism and strive to make this, or one of the coming births, their last. The laity, who pursue less rigorous practices, strive to attain rational faith and to do as much good as possible now. Following strict ethics, the laity choose professions that revere and protect life and totally avoid violentlivelihoods.
Jains believe that
Devas (angels or celestial beings) cannot help jiva to obtain liberation. This must be achieved by individuals through their own efforts. In fact, devas themselves cannot achieve liberation until they reincarnate as humans and undertake the difficult act of removing karma. Their efforts to attain the exalted state of
Siddha, the permanent liberation of jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, must be their own.
The Jain ethical code is taken very seriously. Five vows are followed by both laity and monks/nuns. These are:
#
Nonviolence (
ahimsa, or ahinsa)#Truth (
satya)#Non-stealing (
asteya)#Chastity (
brahma-charya)#Non-possession or Non-possessiveness (
aparigrah)
For laypersons, 'chastity' means confining sexual experiences to marriage. For monks/nuns, it means complete celibacy. Nonviolence involves being vegetarian and some choose to be vegan. Jains are expected to be non-violent in thought, word and deed, towards humans and every living creature. Human life is deemed the highest and it is vital to never harm or upset another. While performing holy deeds, Svetambara Jains wear cloths over their mouths and noses to avoid spittle falling on texts or revered images.
Along with the Five Vows, Jains avoid harboring ill will towards others and practise forgiveness. They believe that
Atma (Soul) can lead one to becoming Parmatma (liberated soul) and this must come from one's inner self. No jiv gives another salvation but can only show the way. Jains refrain from all violence (
Ahimsa) and have named 18 activities, that should be eradicated:
#
Violence#
Untruth#
Theft#
Unchaste behaviour#
Possesiveness#
Anger#
Arrogance#
Greed#
Deceit#
Attachment#
Hatred#
Arguing#
Accusation#
Gossip#
Criticism#
Prejudice and
Dislikes#
Malice#Wrong
beliefMahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced by this Jain emphasis on peaceful, protective living and made it an integral part of his own philosophy.
The holiest symbol is a simple
swastika or svastik. Another incorporates a wheel on the palm of a hand.
Major Jain symbols include:
* 24 Lanchhanas for
Tirthankaras* The Ashtamangals
*
Triratna and
Shrivatsa symbols
* A Tirthankar's mother dreams
*
Dharma-chakra and
Siddha-chakraFasting is very common among Jains and a part of Jain festivals. Most Jains fast at special times, during festivals, and on holy days. Paryushan is the most prominent festival, lasting 8 days during the monsoon. The monsoon is a time of fasting. However, a Jain may fast at any time, sometimes if s/he feels some error has been committed. Variations in fasts encourage Jains to do whatever they can, to maintain whatever self control is possible for an individual.
The aim of fasting
Monks, nuns and laity fast as penance and to control desires. Fasting purifies the body and the mind, reminding one of Mahavir's emphasis on renunciation and asceticism. Mahavir spent months fasting and in contemplation. It is not sufficient simply to stop eating when fasting, s/he must also stop wanting to eat. Control over one's mind is a major goal. If one continues to desire food, the fast is pointless.
Types of fast
There are several fasts:
*Complete fasting: No food or water for a period.
*Partial fasting: Eating less than you desire and to simply avoid hunger.
*Vruti Sankshep: Limiting the number of items eaten.
*Rasa Parityag: Giving up favourite foods.
*Great fasts: Some monks fast for months at a time, following Mahavir, who fasted for over 6 months.
Different types of fast
*Choviyharo Upavas - To give up food and water for the whole day.
*Upavas - To give up only food for the whole day.
*Digamber Upvas - One may drink water only once a day, before sunset.
*Shwetamber Upvas - One may drink Water after Porsi which is boiled and then cooled naturally, provided this is done before sunset
*Ekasan - To eat one meal a day at one sitting and drink water as desired between sunrise and sunset.
*Beasan - To eat two meals a day, (one meal per sitting) and drink water any times between sunrise and sunset.
*Ayambil: Eating food once in one sitting. The food is spice free and boiled or cooked, without milk, curds, ghee, oil, or green/raw vegetables.
*Chathth - To give up both food and water or only food continuously for two days.
*Aththam - To give up food and water or only food continuously for three days.
*Aththai - To give up food and water or only food continuously for eight days.
*Masaksaman - To give up food and water or only food continuously for a whole month.
*Navkarsi: Food and water is consumed forty-eight (48) minutes after sunrise. The orthodox brush teeth and rinse mouths only after sunrise.
*Porsi: Taking food and water three hours after sunrise.
*Sadh-porsi: Taking food and water four hours and thirty minutes after sunrise.
*Purimuddh: Taking food and water six hours after sunrise.
*Avadhdh: Taking food and water eight hours after sunrise.
*Tivihar: After sunset no food or juice shall be taken, but one may drink water. Many Jains practise this daily.
*Navapad oli - During every year for 9 days starting from the 6/7th day in the bright fortnight until the full moon day in Ashwin and Chaitra months, one does Ayambil. This is repeated for the next four and half years. Ayambils may be restricted to one kind of grain per day. Other austerities are varshitap, Vardhaman, and visasthanak tap, etc.
*
Santhara - To give up food and water entirely. This leads to death and is undertaken by someone who has finished all his/her duties and wishes to leave this world peacefully. It gives control over when one dies so everything may be completed and a person may leave of his/her own free will.
The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit (Agamas, Agama-tulya, Siddhanta texts, etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tatvarth Sutra, Puranas, Kosh, Shravakachar, Mathematics, Nighantus etc). Later Jain literature was written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, grammars, etc), Hindi (Chhahdhal,
Mokshamarg Prakashak, etc), Tamil (
Jivakacintamani,
Kural, etc), Kannada (
Vaddaradhane, etc.). Tatvarth Sutra, Padma Puran (Ram Charitra), Jin PravachanRahasya-Kosh, Chhahdhal and Shravakachars such as Ratnakarandak Shravakachar and Shravak Dharma Prakash may be downloaded at http://www.AtmaDharma.com See
Jain literature for more details.
Every day Jains bow and say their universal prayer, the
Namaskara Sutra. All good work and events start with this prayer of salutation and worship. Jains have built temples where Tirthankar images are venerated. Jain rituals may be elaborate for symbolic objects are offered and Tirthankars praised in song. But some Jain sects refuse to enter temples or venerate images, considering them simply guides. Sadhumargi Shvetambar Jains, such as the Terapanthi, regard holy statues or temples as totally unnecessary.
Jain rituals include:
* Panch-kalyanak Pratishtha
* Pratikraman
* Guru-vandan, Chaitya vandan etc.
Jain marriage ceremonies and family rites are usually variations of orthodox Hindu rituals.
It is generally believed that the Jain
sangha divided into two major
sects,
Digambar and
Shvetambar, about 200 years after
Mahāvīr's nirvan. Some historians believe there was no clear division until the 5th century. The best available information indicates that the chief Jain monk,
Bhadrabahu, foresaw famine and led about 12,000
Digambar followers to
southern India. Twelve years later, they returned to find the
Shvetambar sect and in 453, the Valabhi council edited and compiled traditional Shvetambar scriptures.
Digambar monks do not wear clothes because they believe clothes are like other possessions, increasing dependency and desire for material things, and desire for anything ultimately leads to sorrow.
Shvetambar monks wear white clothes for practical reasons and believe there is nothing in Jain scripture that condemns wearing clothes. Sadhvis (nuns) of both sects wear white. These differing views arise from different interpretations of the same holy books. There are minor differences in the enumeration and validity of each sect's literature.
Digambar believe that women cannot attain
moksha, while
Shvetambars believe that women may certainly attain liberation. Digambars believe that Mahavir was not married while Shvetambars believe the princely Mahavir was married and had a daughter. Apart from doubts about women attaining moksh, another difference is in the first Jain prayer, the Namaskar Sutra. Other differences are minor and not based on major points of doctrine.
Excavations at Mathura revealed many Jain statues from the
Kushana period. Tirthankars are represented without clothes and monks, with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as 'ardha-phalak' and mentioned in some texts. The
Yapaniaya sect, believed to have originated from the Ardha-phalak, follows Digambar nudity, along with several Shvetambar beliefs.
Both groups are subdivided into sects, such as
Sthanakvasi,
Terapanthi,
Deravasi, and
Bisapanth. Some are 'murtipujak' (image worshippers) while 'non murtipujak', refuse statues or images. Most simply call themselves Jains and follow general traditions rather than specific sectarian practices.
In 1974, a committee with representatives from every sect complied a new text: [[Samana Suttam].
The pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient
Bihar possibly gave rise to
Buddhism. The Buddhists have always maintained that during the time of Buddha and Mahavir, Jainism was already an ancient and deeply entrenched faith and culture in the region. For a discussion about the connections between Jainism and Buddhism see
Jainism and Buddhism.
With 5 to 6 million followers, Jainism is among the smallest of the
major world religions, but in India its influence is much more than these numbers would suggest. Jains live throughout India;
Maharashtra,
Rajasthan and
Gujarat have the largest Jain population among Indian states.
Karnatak and
Madhya Pradesh have relatively large Jain populations. There is a large following in
Punjab, especially in
Ludhiana and
Patiala and there were many Jains in
Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the
Partition of
1947, after which many had to flee to India.
Jains follow their religious practises in
Delhi,
Mumbai,
Kolkata,
Chennai,
Ahmedabad,
Bangalore, and
Hyderabad.
There are 85 Jain
communities in different parts of India and around the world. They may speak local languages or follow different rituals but essentially, follow the same principles.
Outside India, the
United States,
United Kingdom,
Canada and
East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda) have large Jain communities. Smaller Jain communities exist in
Nepal,
Japan,
Singapore,
Australia, etc. At various times, Jainism was found all over South Asia including
Sri Lanka and what are now
Pakistan,
Bangladesh,
Burma and
Afghanistan.
Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of civilization in Asia, and its ancient influence has been traced beyond the borders of modern
India into the
Middle Eastern and
Mediterranean regions. Jainism is presently a strong faith in the United States and several Jain temples have been built.
American Jainism accommodate all the sects.
Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion has been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain temple worship and rituals may be observed in certain Jain sects. For a detailed discussion see
Jainism and Hinduism.
While the Jains are only 0.4% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India are considerable. Jainism has influenced
Gujarat most significantly. The earliest known Gujarati text Bharat-Bahubali Ras, was written by a Jain monk. The most important people in Gujarat's Jain history were Acharya
Hemachandra Suri and his pupil, the
Chalukya ruler
Kumarpal.
Jains are both among the wealthiest of Indians and the most philanthropic. They run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals and are the most important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat.
Jains have greatly influenced Gujarati cuisine. Gujarat is predominantly vegetarian, and its food has pleasing, soothing aromas as pungent onions and garlic are omitted.
In contrast to some religious groups, Jains encourage their monks to do research and go for higher education. Jain monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups, and parallels Christian clergy.
The 2001 census states Jains are India's most literate community and India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer are preserved by Jain institutions.
LiteratureJains have contributed to India's classical and popular literature. * In
Kannada almost the entire early literature is of Jain origin.
* Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars.
* Several
Tamil classics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject.
* Practically all the known texts in the
Apabhramsha language are Jain works.
Archaeological evidence such as various seals and other artifacts from the
Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000"1500 BC) has been cited by some scholars as attesting to the faith's roots in pre-
Indo-Aryan migration India. (Refer to the discussion page as well as the 'specialized sources', below.)
Decipherment of Brahmi by James Princep in 1788, permitted reading of ancient inscriptions in India, which established the antiquity of Jainism. Discovery of Jain manuscripts, a process that continues today, has added significantly to retracing the history of Jainism.
Jain archaeological findings are from Maurya, Sunga, Kushan, Gupta, Kalachuries, Rashtrakut, Chalukya, Chandel (Khajuraho etc.) and Rajput and later periods.
Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. They include western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan who has worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.
There are many Jain
tirthas (pilgrimage sites) throughout India.
*
Shikharji also known as
Parshwanathji located in
Giridih district in
Jharkhand state, is considered the most sacred. Parshwanath Hill is about 4481 feet high, and besides Mahavir, twenty
Tirthankars attained
Nirvan here.
GoogleEarthLocation*
Shravanabelagola, a monumental statue of Saint Gomateshwar in
Hassan District,
Karnatak.
*
Dilwada Temples, complex of white marble Jain temples on
Mount Abu,
Rajasthan.
*
Ranakpur Temples, extensive complex of white marble Jain temples in
Ranakpur,
Rajasthan.
*
Palitana, most visited Jain temple in
Gujarat.
*
Girnar,a temple in
Gujrat.
*
Bawangaja, a complex of Jain temples and monumental statues in
Barwani District,
Madhya Pradesh.
*
Gwalior's fort is home to dozens of Jain rock-cut sculptures.
*
Sonagir, about 60 km from Gwalior, has scores of temples on little hillocks.
*
Bajrangadh,
Atisaya-kshetra in
Guna district in
Madhya Pradesh,
India*
Kundalpur, Siddha-kshetra with 63 temples, is famous for a beautiful statue of Bade Baba in
Damoh district in
Madhya Pradesh,
India*
Shri Mahavirji/
Chandanpur, in
Sawai Madhopur district in
Rajasthan,
India has a 78 cms. high, copper - colored idol of Bhagawan Mahavir Swami in the Padmasana posture. About 175 km away from
Jaipur, it is the most visited temple in
Rajasthan.
*
Tijara/
Dehra,
Atisaya-kshetra, in
Alwar district in
Rajasthan,
India, where the principal deity is Bhagwan Chandra Prabhu, is about 110 km away from
Delhi.
Siddhachalamtemple in New Jersey, USA, is considered worthy of pilgrimage. Apart from India, America has the most Jain temples!
* UK
**The
Jain Centre in
Leicester, England, the first Jain Temple consecrated in the western world
**The
Oshwal Centre in
Potters Bar,
England, the only traditional Jain Temple in Europe.
*Canada
**The Jain Society of Toronto in
Toronto, Ontario (Website under construction) has the largest number of members in Canada
**The Sri Jain Mandir in
Toronto, Ontario**The Jain Society of Alberta in
Edmonton, Alberta**The Montreal Jain Association in
Montreal, Quebec**The Jain Center of British Columbia in
Vancouver, British Columbia* USA
**The
Hindu Jain Temple in
Monroeville, Pennsylvania is the first combined Hindu Jain temple in the World.
**The
Jain Center of Greater Boston in
Norwood, Massachusetts is the first Jain Center in North America.
**The
Jain Society of Metropolitan Chicago in
Bartlett, Illinois**The
Jain Center of Northern California in
Milpitas, California**The
Jain Center of America in
Elmhurst, New York**The
Jain Center of Greater Atlanta in
Atlanta, Georgia**The
Jain Society of Greater Detroit in
Farmington Hills, Michigan**The
Jain Society of Metropolitan Washington in
Silver Spring, Maryland**The
Siddhachalam, International Mahavir Jain Mission in
Blairstown, New Jersey**The
Jain Center of Southern California in
Buena Park, California**The
Jain Society of Houston in
Houston, TexasFind more links at
http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainsoc.html,http://www.jaina.org/
*
Paryushan Parva, 10/8 (Digambar/Shwetambar) day fasts, and for observe, 10/8 important principles.
*
Mahavir Jayanti, Lord
Mahavir's birth.
*
Diwali, commemorates Lord
Mahavir attainment of nirvan.
*
Kshamavaani, The day for asking everyone's forgiveness.
*
Shawani Hirshnadi, The celebration of Hirsh's triumph over evil.
The
Jain Calendar gives the dates for major Jain festivals, vrats and fairs.
South Asia has a rich history of diverse philosophies. Connections among these are discussed at:
*
Jainism and Hinduism*
Jainism and Buddhism*
Jainism and SikhismEven though Jainism is of Indian origin, it shared some principles with the Hellenic tradition, specially with
Stoic and
Pythagorean philosophies of Europe. A comparison with modern western religions can be found at:
*
Jainism and Christianity*
Jainism and Judaism*
Jainism and Islam*
List of Jains*
Veganism*
American Jainism*
Jain community**
Tamil Jains**
Tulu Jains **
Jainism in Delhi**
Jainism in Gujarat**
Jainism in Rajasthan**
Jains of Maharashtra**
Jainism in Mumbai*
Jains in India according to 2001 censusIntroductory:
* Jain, Duli C. (Editor),
Studies In Jainism: Primer, Jain Study Circle, 1997.
* Parik, Vastupal
Jainism and the New Spirituality, Peace Publications, 2002.
Detailed Introduction:
* Shah, Natubhai,
Jainism : The World of Conquerors, Motilal Banarsidass, 2004.
* Jaini, Padmanabh S.,
Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, 2001.
* Titze, Kurt,
Jainism : A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Mohtilal Banarsidass, 1998.
* Wiley, Kristi,
Historical Dictionary of Jainism, Scarecrow Press, 2004.
* Mishra, Mamta,
Bharatiya Darshan, Kala Prakashan, Varanasi, 2000.
* Lawrence A. Babb, Absent Lord, University of California Press, 1996.
* Vallely, Anne,
Guardians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002. (Jain nuns)
* Kelting, Whitney,
Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2001. (Jain laywomen)
*
The Assembly of Listeners, edited by Michael Carrithers and Caroline Humphrey, 5-14. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Specialized sources:
*Mary Pat Fisher,
Living Religions (5th Edition), 2003, p.130
*Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain,
Jainism in Buddhist Literature. Alok Prakashan: Nagpur, 1972.
*Campbell, Joseph,
Oriental Mythology, 1962.
*Nakamura, Hajime,
Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts. Kosei Publishing: Tokyo, 2000.
*Ramachandran, T.N.,
Harrappa and Jainism 1987.
*Subramaniyam, Ka Naa,
Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural. Bharatiya Jnanpith: New Delhi 1987.
*Thomas, Edward,
Jainism, or the Early Faith of Asoka. Asian Educational Services: New Delhi, 1995 (reprint of the original by Trubner: London, 1877).
* Cort, John,
Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India', New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
*
Jain Philosophy, Webb, Mark Owen*Vallely, Anne,
Gaurdians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.
*Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas'', New York: Oxford, 2001.
*
Jain Yahoo User Group*
Jain Center of New York*
Jain Center of Long Island*
Jain Center of Southern California*
A complete jainism portal *
Indias best site on jainism *
mahamasthakabhisheka site from india *
Jaindharm.net - Worlds Best Site on Jainism *
Federation of Jain Associations in North America *
Listings of Jain Temples and places of worship in North America *
Young Jains of America *
Young Jains of India *
Young Jains Professionals *
Jain Diaries: The Jain Blog *
Jain Photos (By YJA) *
Jainism: Jain Principles, Tradition and Practices Jainism resources on the web
*
Jain Scriptures*
Jaina Sutras, Translated from the Prakrit by Hermann Jacobi, 1884
*
AtmaDharma.com - Collection of Original Jain Texts *
Jain Samaj Europe *
Jainworld *
Shrimad Rajchandra Ashram - Devlali*
Religious Texts Index for Jainism*
Jain Event Pratishta Mahotsava
