Korea
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 | Location of Korea |
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Korea (
Korean: (
조선 or
한국, see below) is a geographic area, civilization, and former state situated on the
Korean Peninsula in
East Asia. The peninsula is currently divided into
North Korea and
South Korea, and borders
China to the northwest and
Russia to the northeast, with
Japan situated to the southeast across the
Korea Strait.
One of the world's oldest
civilizations
[Ancient civilizations], Korea began with the founding of
Gojoseon in 2333 BC, according to the
Dangun legend. Limited lingustic evidence suggests possible Altaic-Tungusic origins of these people, whose northern Mongolian Steppe culture absorbed refugees and invaders from northern China. In the 4th century, the adoption of
Buddhism and the
Chinese writing system ("
hanja" in Korean) had a profound effect on its society. Koreans later passed on these, as well as their own advances, to Japan, helping that country take its first steps into civilization.
["Yayoi Period History Summary," BookRags.com; Jared Diamond, "Japanese Roots," Discover 19:6 (June 1998); Thayer Watkins, "The Genetic Origins of the Japanese"; "Shinto - History to 1900," Encyclopædia Britannica; "The Yayoi period (c. 250 BC"c. AD 250)," Encyclopædia Britannica.]["Korean Buddhism Basis of Japanese Buddhism," Seoul Times, June 18, 2006; "Buddhist Art of Korea & Japan," Asia Society Museum; "Kanji," JapanGuide.com; "Pottery," MSN Encarta; "History of Japan," JapanVisitor.com.][; George Sansom, A History of Japan to 1334, Stanford University Press, 1958. p. 47. ISBN 0804705232][From Paekche to Origin of Yamato] After the unification of the
Three Kingdoms of Korea by
Silla in 676, Korea was ruled by a single government and maintained political and cultural independence, despite the
Mongol invasions of the
Goryeo Dynasty in the 13th century and
Hideyoshi's Invasions of Korea in the 16th century (
Joseon Dynasty). Korean civilization reached its peak in the 15th century, during the reign of King
Sejong the Great, when the Korean alphabet
hangul was created and
turtle ships, possibly the earliest
ironclad warships, were deployed.
During the latter part of the Joseon Dynasty, Korea's isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname the "
Hermit Kingdom". By the late 19th century, the country became the object of colonial designs by the
imperial aggressors of
Japan and
Europe. In 1910, Korea was forcibly
annexed by Japan and remained occupied until the end of
World War II in
1945.
In 1945,
Soviet and
U.S. troops occupied the northern and southern halves of the country, respectively. The two
Cold War enemies helped establish governments sympathetic to their own ideologies, leading to Korea's current division into two political entities:
North Korea and
South Korea.
The name "Korea" derives from the
Goryeo period of
Korean history, which in turn referred to the ancient kingdom of
Goguryeo. It is now commonly used in English contexts by both North and South Korea.
In the
Korean language, Korea as a whole is referred to as
Chosŏn () by North Korea and
Han-guk () by South Korea.
There is archaeological evidence that people were living on the
Korean Peninsula around 700,000 years ago, during the
Lower Paleolithic. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the
Neolithic period begins around 6000 BC. The
Jeulmun Pottery Period spans from 3500 BC to 2000 BC.
Gojoseon
Gojoseon was founded in 2333 BC, according to the
Dangun legend.
[http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history.htm Go-Choson] It was known as
Joseon but is called
Gojoseon ("Old Joseon") today to distinguish it from the recent
Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). The original capital was
Asadal, in southern Manchuria, but later moved to today's
Pyongyang in North Korea. Gojoseon cultural artifacts and walled cities are found throughout Korea and Manchuria.
Archeological and contemporary written records indicate it likely developed from a federation of walled cities into a centralized state sometime between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, when it declared itself a kingdom and warred with northern
Zhou dynasty kingdoms of China.
[http://www.library.ucla.edu/eastasian/korea.htm] In 108 BC, the
Chinese Han dynasty defeated Gojoseon and installed four commanderies in northern Korea and Manchuria primarily as commercial outposts. By 75 BC, three of those commanderies had fallen to Korean resistance. One commandery remained under Chinese control until 313 AD.
A state called
Jin existed in southern Korea prior to Gojoseon's fall, as evidenced by written records and bronze artifacts from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. Jin was followed by the
Samhan, three loose confederacies that claimed descent from Jin.
The Three Kingdoms
|
The Three Kingdoms of Korea. |
The three kingdoms
Goguryeo,
Silla, and
Baekje were founded around the time of Gojoseon's fall. They competed with each other both economically and militarily.
Buddhism eventually became the chief religion of all three kingdoms.
Goguryeo was founded in 37 BC by
Jumong (posthumously called King Dongmyeongseong). Goguryeo united
Buyeo,
Okjeo,
Dongye and other states in the former Gojoseon territory, and destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313 AD, controlling northern Korea and Manchuria.
[http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history.htm Koguryo] Goguryeo was the most dominant power, but was at constant war with the
Sui and
Tang dynasties of China. Goguryeo's defeat of Sui invasion forces contributed to the collapse of the Sui Dynasty, but the Tang Dynasty continued attacks against Goguryeo.
Baekje was founded in 18 BC by Jumong's third son,
Onjo, around modern-day Seoul. It occupied the southwest of the peninsula, and at its height, controlled much of the western half.
Silla was founded by
Bak Hyeokgeose in 57 BC. Although later records claim Silla was the oldest of the three kingdoms, it is believed to be the latest to develop into a centralized kingdom.
Unified Silla and Balhae
Silla emerged as a sea power and battled Japanese pirates, especially during the Unified Silla period. Silla first annexed the smaller
Gaya confederacy. By the 660s, Silla formed an alliance with the Tang Dynasty of China to conquer Baekje and later Goguryeo. After repelling Chinese forces, Silla established the first unified state in Korea, often called
Unified Silla.
After Silla's unification, former Goguryeo general
Dae Joyeong led a group of Koreans to the
Jilin area in Manchuria and founded
Balhae (698 AD - 926 AD) as the successor to Goguryeo. Eventually, Balhae's territory extended from the
Sungari and
Amur Rivers in northern Manchuria down to the northern provinces of Korea. Balhae was conquered by the
Khitans in 926.
Goryeo Dynasty
In the late 9th century, Unified Silla gave way to the brief
Later Three Kingdoms period. The
Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) replaced Silla. Many members of the Balhae ruling class joined the newly founded Goryeo, which established its boundaries to an area slightly larger than the Korean peninsula (See
Gando region which is now occupied by the Chinese). During this period, laws were codified, a civil service system was introduced, and
Buddhism flourished.
[http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history/koryo_dynasty.htm]In the 10th and 11th centuries, Korea continued to be plagued by attacks from
Jurchen and Khitan tribes on the northern borders. Conflict increased between civil and military officials as the latter were degraded and poorly paid. This led to an uprising by military and forced some military officials to migrate from the country.
In 1238, the
Mongolian Empire invaded. After nearly thirty years of war, the two sides signed a treaty that favored the Mongols. In the 1340s, the
Mongol Empire declined rapidly due to internal strife, and Korea was able to pursue political reform without Mongol interference. At this time, General
Yi Seong-gye distinguished himself by repelling Japan-based pirates, known as
Wokou.
[http://152.99.71.184/warp/webapp/content/view?meta_id=english&id=62]Joseon Dynasty
In 1392,
Yi Seong-gye established the
Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) with a coup, moving the capital to
Hanseong (now
Seoul) and built
Gyeongbokgung Palace.
King
Sejong the Great (1418-1450) promulgated
Hangul, the Korean alphabet, and reigned over cultural and techonological advances. After several weak kings who died or failed to influence Korea, King
Seongjong's rule (1457-1494) saw economic and cultural revival.
During the
Imjin War (1592 - 1598), Japan made two attempts to invade Korea under
Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Although both invasions failed, Korea was left with widespread destruction. With the assistance of
Ming Chinese troops and the
Turtle Ships of Admiral
Yi Sun-sin, Joseon forces were able to repel the Japanese.
In the 1620s and 1630s Joseon suffered invasion by the
Manchu, who eventually conquered Ming China. Korea then enjoyed over two centuries of peace, but isolated itself from the outside world so much that it was often called the "
Hermit Kingdom".
The Joseon Dynasty is believed to have been the longest-lived actively ruling dynasty in East Asia.
Japanese occupation
Beginning in the 1870s, Japan began to force Korea to move out of China's sphere of influence into its own. In 1895,
Empress Myeongseong of Korea was assassinated by the Japanese under
Miura Goro's directive (Kim et al. 1976).
[http://www.kimsoft.com/2002/jp-rape.htm Murder of Empress Myeongseong] After the
Sino-Japanese and the
Russo-Japanese War, Japan gained control of Korea. In 1910, Japan forced Korea to sign the
Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty, although executed by Korean ministers and advisors rather than the Korean head of state, the emperor.
[Forced Annexation]Korean resistance to Japanese brutal occupation was manifested in the massive
March 1st Movement of 1919. This movement was suppressed by force and about 7,000 were killed by Japanese soldiers and police.
[March 1st Movement] In Manchuria, Korean fighters engaged in frequent battles with the Japanese troops, and in Shanghai, China, a Korean government in exile was formed.
For more than 30 years under the Japanese occupation, Korean culture and economy suffered heavy losses. The Korean language was banned and Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names.
[宮" 節子 [Miyata, Setsuko]. "創氏"名" [Creating Surnames and Changing Given Names}, 明石書店 [Akashi-shoten], 1992, al. ASIN 4750304069 ] Numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or taken to Japan.
[Newsweek.com. Who rightfully owns Korean artifacts looted by Japan?] To this day, valuable Korean artifacts can often be found in Japanese museums or among private collectors.
During
World War II, Koreans were forced to support the Japanese war effort. Tens of thousands of men
[山脇 "造 [Yamawaki, Keizo]. 近代日本と外国人労働者―1890年代後半と1920年代前半における中国人・朝鮮人労働者問題 [Modern Japan and Foreign Laborers: Chinese and Korean Laborers in the late 1890s and early 1920s], 明石書店[Akashi-shoten], 1994, et al. ASIN: 4750305685 ] were conscripted into Japan's military. Approximately 200,000 girls and women
[Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Comfort Women. Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military During World War II. Translated by Suzanne O'Brien. Columbia University Press, 2001, ISBN: 0-231-12032-X, originally published by 岩波書店, 1995. ASIN: 4004303842 ], mostly from Korea and China, were conscripted as sex slaves, euphemistically called "
comfort women".
[Comfort-Women.org]Anti-Japanese sentiment is still fairly strong in Korea, as a result of
Japanese war crimes and continuing
Korean-Japanese disputes.
Division and War
With the defeat of Japan in 1945, the
United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration, the Soviet Union administering the peninsula north of the
38th parallel and the United States effectively administering the south. The politics of the
Cold War resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate governments.
Kim Il Sung became the leader of the North Korean government.
Syngman Rhee, a long-time resident of the U.S., was elected as the president of the South.
The
Korean War began in June 1950 and lasted until 1953. The North Korean army launched a full-scale attack on the South on June 25, 1950, after years of frequent minor bloody conflicts along the border. The well-equipped and trained North Korean Army easily overwhelmed the South Korean forces, prompting an urgent intervention by the U.S. forces, later reinforced by the U.N. forces. When the allied forces pushed the North Koreans back to the Chinese-North Korean border, the Chinese entered the war. Millions of civilians died and the United States waged a bombing campaign over North Korea that effectively destroyed most cities (Cumings 1997: 298).
The war ended in a ceasefire agreement at approximately the same boundary. The two countries never signed a peace treaty. Both Korean states proclaim eventual
reunification as a goal, and discourses on a united Korea are very much a part of Korean ethno-cultural
identity.
Korea is located on the
Korean Peninsula in North-East Asia. It is bound by two countries and three seas. To the northwest, the
Yalu River separates Korea from China and to the northeast, the
Tumen River separates Korea from Russia. The
Yellow Sea is to the west, the
East China Sea is to the south, and the
East Sea (
Sea of Japan; refer to
Sea of Japan naming dispute) is to the east of Korea. Notable islands include
Jeju-do,
Ulleung-do, and
Dokdo.
The southern part and western part of the Korean mainland have well developed plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous. The highest mountain in Korea is
Mt. Baekdu (2744m, Changbaishan in Chinese). The border with China runs through the mountain. The southern extension of Mt. Baekdu is a highland called Gaema Gowon. This highland was mainly raised during the
Cenozoic orogeny and partly covered by volcanic matter. To the south of Gaema Gowon, successive high mountains are located along the eastern coast of the peninsula. This series of mountains is named
Baekdudaegan. Some significant mountains include Sobaeksan (2,184 m), Baeksan (1,724 m), Geumgangsan (1,638 m), Seoraksan (1,708 m), Taebaeksan (1,567 m), and Jirisan (1,915 m). There are several lower, secondary mountain series whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdudaegan. They are developed along the tectonic line of Mesozoic orogeny and their directions are NW, NWW.
Unlike most older mountains on the mainland, many important islands in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the Cenozoic orogeny. Jeju-do, situated off the southern coast, is a large volcanic island whose main mountain
Mt. Halla (1950 m) is the highest in South Korea. Ulleung-do and Dokdo are volcanic islands in the
Sea of Japan (East Sea), whose composition is more feslic than Jeju-do. The volcanic islands tend to be younger as one moves westward.
Because the mountainous region is mostly on the eastern part of the peninsula, the main rivers tend to flow westwards. Two exceptions are the southward-flowing
Nakdong River and the Seomjin River. Important rivers running westward include the Yalu, the
Cheongcheon River, the
Daedong River, the
Han River, the
Geum River, and the
Yeongsan River. These rivers have vast flood plains and they provide an ideal environment for wet-rice cultivation.
The southern and southwestern coastlines of Korea form a well-developed
Lias coastline, known as Dadohae in Korean. Its complicated coastline provides mild seas, and the resulting calm environment allows for safe navigation, fishing, and seaweed farming. In addition to the complex coastline, the western coast of the Korean peninsula has an extremely high tidal amplitude (at
Incheon, around the middle of the western coast. It can get as high as 9 m). Vast tidal flats have been developing on the south and west coastlines.
Korea is populated by a highly
homogeneous ethnic group, the
Koreans, who speak a distinct language called
Korean.
A minority of ethnic
Chinese (about 20,000)
[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ks.html] live in South Korea and small communities of ethnic Chinese and Japanese live in North Korea.
[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/kn.html]The combined population of the Korea is about 71 million.
Language
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Korean buddhist architecture |
In ancient Chinese texts, Korea is referred to as "Rivers and Mountains Embroidered on Silk" (錦繡江山) and "Eastern Nation of Decorum" (東方禮儀之國). During the 7th and 8th centuries,
land and sea trading networks connected Korea to
Arabia. As early as 845, Arab traders mentioned Korea saying, "Over the sea beyond China lies a mountainous country called 'Silla', rich in gold. Muslims who arrive there by accident are so attracted by its character that they stay there forever and do not want to leave."
Korean festivities often showcase vibrant colors, which have been attributed to Mongolian influences: bright red, yellow, and green often mark traditional Korean motifs.
[http://www.pacificasiamuseum.org/calendar/kcostumes.htm] These bright colors are sometimes seen in the traditional dress known as
hanbok.
Literature
Korean literature is traditionally divided into two categories. The literature written until the end of the
Joseon Dynasty is called "Classical". The literary production posterior to this era is called named "New" or "Modern" literature. Unlike their predecessors, writers of modern literature are largely influenced by Western authors.
Korea's classical literature came into being in the context of local beliefs, and the in the wake of Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism, with a dominance of the latter. Recorded in Chinese characters, literature of the "Classical" Age produced innovative poetic forms such as
hyangga.
Religion and education
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Amitabha and Eight Great Bodhisattvas, Goryeo scroll from the 1300s |
Confucian tradition has dominated Korean thought, along with contributions by
Buddhism,
Taoism, and
Korean Shamanism. Since the middle of the 20th century, however, Christianity has competed with Buddhism in South Korea, while religion has been suppressed in North Korea.
According to 2003 statistics compiled by the South Korean government, about 46 % of citizens profess to follow no particular religion.
Christians account for 27.3% of the population and
Buddhists 25.3%.
Koreans valued scholarship and rewarded education and study of Chinese classic texts;
Yangban boys were highly educated in
Hanja. A man's "bone rank" (determined by the rank of his father and his mother) defined his social status, in addition to his performance in civil service examination which evaluated what government post he would be appointed to.
Cuisine
Korean cuisine is probably best known for
kimchi, which uses a distinctive
fermentation process of preserving vegetables. Chili peppers are also commonly used, which has given it a reputation for being spicy. Fish, generally grilled or stewed, is the primary source of
protein.
Bulgogi (roasted marinated beef, chicken, or pork),
galbi (ribs), and
samgyeopsal (pork fatback) are popular meat entrees. Korean meals are usually accompanied by a soup or stew, often made with
dwenjang bean paste. Popular dishes are
bibimbap (mixed rice),
naengmyeon (cold noodles),
galbitang (stewed ribs), and
dwenjang jjigae (bean paste soup).
|
Cheomseongdae, oldest surviving astronomical observatory in East Asia |
One of the best known artifacts of Korea's history of science and technology is
Cheomseongdae, a 9-meter high observatory built in 633. It is considered to be the world's oldest surviving astronomical observatory.
The world's earliest known printed document is a Buddhist scripture printed in Korea in 750-751 CE. The world's first metal movable type was invented in Korea in 1232, before
Johann Gutenberg developed
metal letterset type (Cumings 1997: 65). Though Koreans used wooden printing blocks prior 751, metal movable type was a significant development in printing allowing continued use of the same type.
Some Chinese thought Korean porcelains were of the finest quality before and during the
Goryeo Dynasty. During the Goryeo period, Korea advanced traditional arts and crafts, such as white
celadon glazes, fine silk, paper and Sword making.
Hangul, perhaps the most scientifically designed script in widespread use, was created by King
Sejong the Great in 1443. An automated
water clock was invented in 1434 by
Jang Yeong-sil, who later developed a more complicated water-clock with additional astronomical devices,
water gauge, and the
rain gauge.
During the
Joseon period, Korean silk was highly regarded by
China and Korean
pottery made with blue-green
celadon were of the highest quality in the world. Also, during this time, the world's first
ironclad warships, the
Geobukseon (
Turtle Ship) were invented,
[http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/16thcentury/a/firstironclads.htm First Ironclad Warships] as well as other weapons such as the
Bikeokjinchonlae and the
Hwacha.
*Cumings, Bruce.
Korea's Place in the Sun, Norton, 1997. ISBN 0-393-31681-5
*Kim, et al.
Women of Korea: A History from Ancient Times to 1945, Ewha Womans University Press, 1976. ISBN 89-7300-1167.
*
Asian Info website*
Park's Associates* Chun, Tuk Chu. "Korea in the Pacific Community."
Social Education 52 (March 1988), 182. EJ 368 177.
*
Cumings, Bruce.
The Two Koreas. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1984.
*
Focus On Asian Studies. Special Issue: "Korea: A Teacher's Guide." No. 1, Fall 1986.
* Lee Ki-baik.
A New History Of Korea. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1984.
* Lee Sang-sup. "The Arts and Literature of Korea."
The Social Studies 79 (July-August 1988): 153-60. EJ 376 894.
* Dennis Hart,
From Tradition to Consumption: Construction of a Capitalist Culture in South Korea. Seoul:Jimoondang Pub. 2003.
*
List of Korea-related topics*
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History of Korea*
List of Korean monarchs*
Famous Korean people*
Korean name*
National treasures of North Korea*
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Traditional Korean thought*
List of divided nations*
Military of South Korea*
Korean Food Glossary*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ks.html CIA World Factbook Entry for South Korea]
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/kn.html CIA World Factbook Entry for North Korea]
*
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Information About Working and Living in South Korea
