Medieval university
This article is about Western European institutions. See also Medieval university (Asia) and Byzantine universityThe first
European medieval institutions generally considered to be
universities were established in
Italy,
France, and
England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of
arts,
law,
medicine, and
theology. These universities evolved from much older schools and monasteries, and it is difficult to define the date at which they became true universities, although the lists of
studia generali for higher education in Europe held by the
Vatican are a useful guide. A different case is the university of
Constantinople, which was founded in the
9th century as a secular institute of higher learning, to support the state administration.
|
Representation of a university class, (1350s). |
With the increasing professionalisation of society during the
12th and
13th centuries, a similar demand grew for professional
clergy. Before the
12th century, the intellectual life of Europe had been relegated to
monasteries, which were mostly concerned with the study of the
liturgy and prayer; very few monasteries could boast true intellectuals. Following the
Gregorian Reform's emphasis on canon law and the study of the
sacraments, bishops formed
cathedral schools to train the clergy in
Canon law, but also in the more secular aspects of church administration, including logic and disputation for use in preaching and theological discussion, and accounting to more effectively control finances.
Learning became essential to advancing in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and teachers also gained prestige. However, demand quickly outstripped the capacity of cathedral schools, each of which was essentially run by one teacher. In addition, tensions rose between the students of cathedral schools and burghers in smaller towns. So, cathedral schools migrated to large cities, like
Paris and
Bologna.
The predecessor of the modern university found its roots in
Paris, especially under the guidance of
Peter Abelard, who wrote
Sic et Non ("Yes and No"), which collected texts for university study. Dissatisfied with tensions between burghers and students and the censorship of leading intellectuals by the Church, Abelard and others formed the
Universitas, modelled on the mediaeval
guild, a large-scale, self-regulating, permanent institution of higher education.
By the 13th century, almost half of the highest offices in the Church were occupied by degreed masters (
abbots,
archbishops,
cardinals), and over one-third of the second-highest offices were occupied by masters. In addition, some of the greatest theologians of the
High Middle Ages,
Thomas Aquinas and
Robert Grosseteste, were products of the mediaeval university.
The development of the mediaeval university coincided with the widespread reintroduction of
Aristotle from
Byzantine and
Jewish scholars and the decline in popularity of
Platonism and
Neoplatonism in favour of Aristotelian thought.
Initially mediaeval universities did not have a campus. Classes were taught wherever space was available such as churches and homes, a university was not a physical space but a collection of individuals banded together as a
universitas (the corporation). Soon, however, some universities (such as
Cambridge) began to buy or rent rooms specifically for the purposes of teaching.
Universities were generally structured along three types, depending on who paid the teachers. The first type was in
Bologna, where students hired and paid for the teachers. The second type was in
Paris, where teachers were paid by the church. Oxford and Cambridge were predominantly supported by the crown and the state, a fact which helped them survive the
Dissolution of the Monasteries in
1538 and the subsequent removal of all the principal
Catholic institutions in
England. These structural differences created other characteristics. At the Bologna university the students ran everything -- a fact that often put teachers under great pressure and disadvantage. In Paris, teachers ran the school; thus Paris became the premiere spot for teachers from all over Europe. In Paris the main subject matter was theology. In Bologna, where students chose more secular studies, the main subject was law.
University studies took six years for a Bachelor degree and up to twelve additional years for a master's degree and doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven
liberal arts: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The primary emphasis was on logic.
Once a Bachelor of Arts had been obtained, the student would choose one of three faculties –
law,
medicine, or
theology – in which to pursue the
master's degree and
doctorate degree. Theology was the most prestigious area of study, and the most difficult.
Courses were offered according to books, not by subject or theme. For example a course might be on a book by
Aristotle, or a book from the
Bible. Courses were not elective, the course offerings were set, and everyone had to take the same courses. There were, however, occasional choices as to which teacher to use.
Students entered the University at fourteen to fifteen years of age. Classes usually started at 05:00 or 06:00. Students were afforded the legal protection of the clergy. In this way no one was allowed to physically harm them; they could only be tried for crimes in a church court, and were thus immune from any
corporal punishment. This gave students free rein in urban environments to break secular laws with impunity, a fact which produced many abuses: theft, rape and murder were not uncommon among students who did not face serious consequences. This led to uneasy tensions with secular authorities. Students would sometimes "strike" by leaving a city and not returning for years. This happened at the
University of Paris strike of 1229 after a riot (started by the students) left a number of students dead; the University went on strike and did not return for two years. As the students had the legal status of clerics which, according to the Canon Law, could not be held by women, women were not admitted into universities.
A popular textbook for university study was called the
Sentences (
Quattuor libri sententiarum) of
Peter Lombard; theology students and masters were required to write extensive commentaries on this text as part of their curriculum. Much of mediaeval thought in philosophy and theology can be found in
scholastic textual commentary because scholasticism was such a popular method of teaching.
Most University of international excellence in Europe were registered by the
Holy Roman Empire as a
Studia Generale. Members of these institutions were encouraged to disseminate their knowledge across Europe, often giving lecture courses at a different
Studium Generale.
 |
Map of Mediaeval Universities |
List of mediaeval universities (founded before
1600), in order of foundation. Note that many of these institutions were
schools prior to the
university foundation date.
*
University of Bologna,
Italy – teaching from
10th Century recognised as University
1088*
University of Oxford,
England – teaching from
1096 recognised as University
1117*
University of Paris,
France – recognised as University
1150*
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia,
Italy – recognised as University
1175*
Bosnian Church University, Visoko,
Bosnia – recognised as University
1175 - disbanded
1463*
University of Vicenza,
Italy – recognised as University
1204*
University of Cambridge,
England – teaching from
12th Century, recognised as University
1209*
University of Palencia,
Spain – recognised as University
1212*
University of Arezzo,
Italy – recognised as University
1215*
University of Salamanca,
Spain – recognised as University
1218*
University of Padua,
Italy – recognised as University
1222*
University of Naples Federico II,
Italy – recognised as University
1224 by
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor*
University of Toulouse,
France – recognised as University
1229*
University of Siena,
Italy – recognised as University
1240*
University of Valencia,
Spain – recognised as University
1245*
University of Piacenza,
Italy – recognised as University
1248*
University of Valladolid,
Spain – recognised as University
1250*
University of Seville,
Spain – recognised as University
1254*
Sorbonne,
France (at the University of Paris) – recognised as University
1257*
University of Northampton,
England – recognised as University
1261 – disbanded
1264*
University of Montpellier,
France – recognised as University
1289*
University of Coimbra,
Portugal – recognised as University
1290 (in
Lisbon)
*
University of Rome La Sapienza,
Italy – recognised as University
1303*
University of Macerata,
Italy – recognised as University
1290*
University of Lisbon,
Portugal – recognised as University
1290*
University of Lérida – recognised as University
1300*
University of Avignon,
France – recognised as University
1303*
University of Orléans,
France – recognised as University
1306*
University of Perugia,
Italy – recognised as University
1308*
University of Coimbra,
Portugal – recognised as University
1308*
University of Treviso,
Italy – recognised as University
1318*
University of Cahors – recognised as University
1332*
University of Angers,
France – recognised as University
1337*
University of Pisa,
Italy – recognised as University
1338*
University of Grenoble – recognised as University
1339*
Charles University of Prague,
Czech Republic – recognised as University
1348*
University of Florence,
Italy – recognised as University
1349*
University of Perpignan – recognised as University
1350*
Jagiellonian University,
Kraków,
Poland – recognised as University
1364*
University of Vienna,
Austria – recognised as University
1365*
University of Pécs,
Hungary – recognised as University
1367*
University of Erfurt,
Germany – recognised as University
1379*
University of Heidelberg,
Germany – recognised as University
1385*
University of Cologne,
Germany – recognised as University
1388*
University of Ferrara,
Italy – recognised as University
1391 by
papal bull*
University of Zadar,
Croatia – recognised as University
1396*
University of Fermo,
Italy – recognised as University
1398 by
papal bull*
University of Würzburg,
Germany – recognised as University
1402 by
papal bull*
University of Leipzig,
Germany – recognised as University
1409*
University of St Andrews,
Scotland – recognised as University
1413 by
papal bull*
University of Rostock,
Germany – recognised as University
1419*
University of Leuven,
Belgium – recognised as University
1425*
University of Barcelona,
Spain – recognised as University
1450*
University of Glasgow,
Scotland – recognised as University
1451 by
papal bull*
University of Greifswald,
Germany – recognised as University
1456*
University of Basel,
Switzerland – recognised as University
1460*
University of Bratislava (Universitas Istropolitana),
Slovakia – recognised as University
1465*
University of Ingolstadt,
Germany – recognised as University
1472*
University of Tubingen (Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen),
Germany – recognised as University
1476*
University of Uppsala,
Sweden – recognised as University
1477*
University of Copenhagen,
Denmark – recognised as University
1479*
University of Aberdeen,
Scotland – recognised as University
1494 (later merger with
Marischal College in
1860, itself founded
1593)
*
University of Santiago de Compostela,
Spain – recognised as University
1495*
University of Alcalà de Henares,
Spain – recognised as University
1499*
University of Wittenberg,
Germany – recognised as University
1502*
University of Seville,
Spain – recognised as University
1505 by
papal bull -
1551 by
city council*
Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo,
Dominican Republic – recognised as University
1538*
National Autonomous University of Mexico,
Mexico – recognised as University
1551*
National University of San Marcos,
Peru – recognised as University
1551*
Université de Genève,
Switzerland – recognised as University
1559*
University of Leiden,
Netherlands – recognised as University
1575*
University of Vilnius,
Lithuania -- recognised as University
1579*
University of Zaragoza,
Spain – Teaching started at School of Zaragoza in Century VII, recognised as University
1583 -
*
University of Edinburgh,
Scotland – recognised as University
1583*
University of Dublin,
Ireland – recognised as University
1592*
University of San Carlos,
Philippines – recognised as University
1595See also:
List of oldest universities in continuous operation*Cobban, Alan B.
English University Life in the Middle Ages Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1999. ISBN 0814208266
*Ferruolo, Stephen
The Origins of the University: The Schools of Paris and their Critics, 1100-1215 Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0804712662
*Haskins, Charles Homer.
The Rise of Universities. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1972. ISBN 0879683791
*Rashdall, Hastings, rev. by F. M. Powicke, and A. B. Emden.
The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987. ISBN 0198214316
*Rait, Robert S.
Life in the Medieval University. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931. ISBN 0527736503
*Seybolt, Robert Francis, trans.
The Manuale Scholarium: An Original Account of Life in the Mediaeval University. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1921.
*Thorndike, Lynn, trans. and ed.
University Records and Life in the Middle Ages New York: Columbia University Press, 1975. ISBN 039309216X
*
List of oldest universities in continuous operation*
Renaissance of the 12th century*
Studium Generale*
Ancient universities of Scotland*
Town and gown*
Medieval university (Asia)*
The Educational Legacy of Mediaeval and Renaissance Traditions.*
From Manuscript to Print: Evolution of the Mediaeval Book.*
Life of the Students at Paris.*
The Heritage of University Planning: Mediaeval Colleges: General Organisation.*
Mediaeval Universities.*
Mediaeval History: A Mediaeval Atlas*
A Brief History: The Mediaeval University.*
Discussion Document: Is University Life Any Different Today than it was Yesterday?*
Mediaeval Science, the Church, and Universities
