Mercury (element)
Mercury, also called
quicksilver, is a
chemical element in the
periodic table that has the symbol
Hg (from the Latinized Greek
hydrargyrum, for
watery [or
liquid]
silver) and
atomic number 80. A heavy, silvery
transition metal, mercury is one of five elements that are
liquid at or near standard room temperature (the others are the metals
caesium,
francium, and
gallium, and the
nonmetal bromine). Mercury is used in
dental amalgam as well as
thermometers,
barometers and other scientific apparatus, although the use of mercury in thermometers has been largely phased out in clinical and scientific environments (in favor of
alcohol-filled, digital or
thermistor-based replacements) due to concerns about the element's toxicity. Mercury is mostly obtained by reduction from the
mineral cinnabar.
Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in some
thermometers, especially ones which are used to measure high temperatures (In the United States, non-prescription sale of mercury fever thermometers was banned by a number of different states and localities). Other uses:
*Mercury
sphygmomanometers.
*Mercury
barometers,
diffusion pumps,
coulometers, and many other laboratory instruments. As an opaque liquid with a very high density, it is ideal for this role.
*The
triple point of mercury, -38.8344 °C, is a fixed point used as a temperature standard for the International Temperature Scale (
ITS-90).
*In some gaseous
electron tubes,
mercury arc rectifier*Gaseous mercury is used in
mercury-vapor lamps and some "
neon sign" type advertising signs and
fluorescent lamps.
*Liquid mercury was sometimes used as a
coolant for
nuclear reactors. However
sodium is proposed for reactors cooled with liquid metal, because the high density of mercury requires much energy for circulating the coolant.
*Mercury was once used in the
amalgamation process of refining
gold and
silver ores. This polluting practice is still used by the
garimpeiros (gold miners) of the
Amazon basin in
Brazil.
*Mercury is still used in some cultures for
folk medicine and ceremonial purposes which may involve
ingestion,
injection, or the sprinkling of elemental mercury around the home. It must be emphasized that the former two procedures, especially, are extremely hazardous.
*
Alexander Calder built a
mercury fountain for the Spanish Pavilion at the 1937
World's Fair in Paris.
*Used in
electrochemistry as part of a secondary reference
electrode called the
calomel electrode as an alternative to the
Standard Hydrogen Electrode. This is used to work out the
electrode potential of
half cells.
Miscellaneous uses: mercury switches,
electrodes in some types of
electrolysis,
batteries (
mercury cells, including for
sodium hydroxide and
chlorine production, and
alkaline batteries),
catalysts,
insecticides,
dental amalgams/preparations and
liquid mirror telescopes.
*
Thiomersal, (called
Thimerosal in the United States), an
organic compound used as a
preservative in
vaccines (this use is disappearing
[FDA] and
Thiomersal controversy).
Historical uses: preserving wood, developing
daguerreotypes,
silvering mirrors, anti-fouling paints (discontinued in 1990),
herbicides (discontinued in 1995), cleaning, and in-road leveling devices in cars. Mercury compounds have been used in
antiseptics,
laxatives,
antidepressants, and
antisyphilitics. It was also allegedly used by
allied spies to sabotage
German planes. A mercury paste was applied to bare
aluminium, causing the metal to rapidly
corrode. This would cause mysterious structural failures.
In
Islamic Spain it was used for filling decorative pools and for fountains.
[Saudiaramcoworld][positiveatheism]In some applications, mercury can be replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive
galinstan alloy.
A new type of
atomic clock, using mercury instead of
caesium, has been demonstrated. Accuracy is expected to be within one second in100 million years.
[BBC][NIST]Mercury was known to the ancient
Chinese and
Hindus and was found in
Egyptian tombs that date from 1500 BC. In
China,
India and
Tibet, mercury use was thought to prolong life, heal fractures, and maintain generally good health. China's first emperor, Qin Shihuang Di, is said to have been buried in a tomb that contained rivers of flowing mercury, representative of the rivers of China. The
ancient Greeks used mercury in ointments and the
Romans used it in
cosmetics. By 500 BC mercury was used to make
amalgams with other metals. The Indian word for
alchemy is
Rasavātam which means ‘the way of mercury.' Alchemists often thought of mercury as the first
matter from which all metals were formed. Different
metals could be produced by varying the quality and quantity of
sulfur contained within the mercury. An ability to transform mercury into any metal resulted from the essentially mercurial quality of all metals. The purest of these was
gold, and mercury was required for the
transmutation of base (or impure) metals into gold. This was a primary goal of alchemy, either for material or spiritual gain.
Hg is the modern
chemical symbol for mercury. It comes from
hydrargyrum, a
Latinized form of the
Greek word
`Υδραργυρος (
hydrargyros), which is a compound word meaning 'water' and 'silver' — since it is liquid, like water, and yet has a silvery metallic sheen. The element was named after the Roman god
Mercury, known for speed and mobility. It is associated with the planet
Mercury. The astrological symbol for the planet is also one of the alchemical symbols for the metal (above left). Mercury is the only metal for which the alchemical planetary name became the common name.
From the mid-18th to the mid-19th centuries, a process called "carroting" was used in the making of
felt hats. Animal skins were rinsed in an orange solution of the mercury compound
mercuric nitrate, Hg(NO
3)
2·2H
2O. This process separated the fur from the pelt and matted it together. This solution and the vapors it produced were highly toxic. Its use resulted in widespread cases of
mercury poisoning among hatters. Symptoms included
tremors,
emotional lability,
insomnia,
dementia and
hallucinations. The
United States Public Health Service banned the use of mercury in the felt industry in December 1941. The psychological symptoms associated with mercury poisoning may have inspired the phrase "mad as a hatter"; see the
hatter article on the origin of the phrase.
Dentistry
Elemental mercury is the main ingredient in
dental amalgams. Controversy over the
health effects from the use of mercury amalgams began shortly after its introduction into the western world, nearly 200 years ago. In 1843, The American Society of Dental Surgeons, concerned about mercury poisoning, required its members to sign a pledge that they would not use amalgam. In 1859, The
American Dental Association was formed by dentists who believed amalgam was "safe and effective." The ADA, "continues to believe that amalgam is a valuable, viable and safe choice for dental patients," as written in their statement on dental amalgam.
[statement on dental amalgam] In 1993, the
United States Public Health Service reported that, "amalgam fillings release small amounts of mercury vapor," but in such a small amount that it, "has not been shown to cause any … adverse health effects." This position is not shared by all governments and there is an ongoing
dental amalgam controversy.
Medicine
Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine for centuries, although they are much less common today than they once were, now that the toxic effects of mercury and its compounds are more widely known and understood.
Mercury(I) chloride (also known as
calomel or mercurous chloride) has traditionally been used as a
diuretic, topical
disinfectant, and
laxative.
Mercury(II) chloride (also known as mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate) was once used to treat
syphilis (along with other mercury compounds), although it is so toxic that sometimes the symptoms of its toxicity were confused with those of the syphilis it was believed to treat (Pimple 2004); it was also used as a disinfectant.
Blue mass, a pill or syrup in which mercury is the main ingredient, was prescribed throughout the
1800s for numerous conditions including, constipation, depression, child-bearing and toothaches.
[National Geographic] In the early 20th century, mercury was administered to children yearly as a laxative and dewormer, and it was used in teething powders for infants.
Some
vaccines have contained the preservative
Thimerosal (partly
ethyl mercury) since the
1930s FDA report.
[FDA report] It has been widely speculated that this mercury-based preservative can trigger
autism in children who are already genetically predisposed to it;
however, the medical evidence is inconclusive and does not seem to show a risk to the child greater than that resulting from not being vaccinated.
Mercury in the form of one of its common ores,
cinnabar, remains an important component of
Chinese,
Tibetan, and
Ayurvedic medicine. As problems may arise when these medicines are exported to countries that prohibit the use of mercury in medicines, in recent times, less toxic substitutes have been devised.
Today, the use of mercury in medicine has greatly declined in all respects, especially in developed countries.
Thermometers and
sphygmomanometers containing mercury were invented in the early 18th and late 19th centuries, respectively. In the early 21st century, their use is declining and has been banned in some countries, states and medical institutions. In
2002, the
U.S. Senate passed legislation to phase out the sale of
non-prescription mercury thermometers. In
2003,
Washington and
Maine became the first states to ban mercury blood pressure devices.
[HCWH News release] Mercury compounds are found in some
over-the-counter drugs, including topical
antiseptics, stimulant
laxatives,
diaper-rash ointment,
eye drops, and
nasal sprays. The
FDA (FDA) has "inadequate data to establish general recognition of the safety and effectiveness," of the mercury ingredients in these products.
[Code of federal regulations] Mercury is still used in some diuretics, although substitutes now exist for most therapeutic uses.
In the
European Union,
RoHS legislation being introduced will ban mercury from certain products, and limit the amount of mercury in other products to less than 1000
ppm (except for certain exemptions).
Mercury is an extremely rare element in the earth's crust, having an average crustal abundance by mass of only 0.08 parts per million. However, because it does not blend
geochemically with those elements that comprise the majority of the crustal mass, mercury ores can be extraordinarily concentrated considering the element's abundance in ordinary rock. The richest mercury ores contain up to 2.5% mercury by mass, and even the leanest concentrated deposits are at least 0.1% mercury (12,000 times average crustal abundance). This makes mercury ore the most easily depleted of all metal ores. Depletion of mercury ores has been a major concern since the 1960s and it is now almost certain that the last mineable deposits were discovered in
Algeria in the mid-1970s. Since the early 1970s, total world production of mercury has fallen from 9,000
tonnes to 1,600 tonnes due to depletion of reserves.
It is found either as a native metal (rare) or in
cinnabar,
corderoite,
livingstonite, and other
minerals with cinnabar (Hg
S) being the most common ore. Mercury ores usually occur in very young orogenic belts where rock of high density are forced to the crust of the Earth, often in hot springs or other
volcanic regions. Most present-day production occurs in
Spain,
Kyrgyzstan,
China and
Tajikistan. Over 100,000 tons of mercury were mined from the region of
Huancavelica,
Peru, over the course of three centuries following the discovery of deposits there in 1563; mercury from Huancavelica was crucial in the production of silver in colonial Spanish America. Many former ores in
Italy,
Slovenia, the
United States and
Mexico which once produced a large proportion of the world's supply have now been completely mined out. The metal is extracted by heating cinnabar in a current of air and condensing the vapor. The equation for this extraction is:HgS + O
2 ' Hg + SO
2See also
:Category:Mercury minerals,
:Category:Mercury mines.
The most important salts are:
*
Mercury(I) chloride (AKA
calomel) is sometimes still used in
medicine and acousto-optical filters
*
Mercury(II) chloride (which is very
corrosive,
sublimates and is a violent poison)
*
Mercury fulminate, (a
detonator widely used in
explosives),
*
Mercury(II) sulfide (AKA
cinnabar mercuric ore still used in oriental medicine, or
vermilion which is a high-grade
paint pigment),
*
Mercury(II) selenide a
semiconductor,
*
Mercury(II) telluride a
semiconductor, and
*
Mercury cadmium telluride and
mercury zinc telluride,
infrared detector materials.
Laboratory tests have found that an electrical discharge causes the
noble gases to combine with mercury vapor. These compounds are held together with
van der Waals forces and result in HgNe, HgAr, HgKr, and HgXe. Organic mercury
compounds are also important.
Methylmercury is a dangerous compound that is widely found as a
pollutant in water bodies and streams.
See also
:Category:Mercury compounds.
There are seven stable
isotopes of mercury with Hg-202 being the most abundant (29.86%). The longest-lived
radioisotopes are Hg-194 with a
half-life of 444 years, and Hg-203 with a half-life of 46.612 days. Most of the remaining radioisotopes have half-lifes that are less than a day.
 |
Amount of atmospheric mercury deposited at Wyoming's Fremont Glacier over the last 270 years. |
Abundance*Crustal ~7×10
-2 mg/kg
*Oceans ~3×10
-5 mg/l
Preindustrial deposition rates of mercury from the atmosphere may be in the range of 4 ng/L in the western USA. Although that can be considered a natural level of exposure, regional or global sources have significant effects. Volcanic eruptions can increase the atmospheric source by 4–6 times.
[[1]]Mercury enters the environment as a pollutant from various industries:
* coal-fired power plants are the largest source (40% of USA emissions in 1999).
[[2]]* industrial processes
**
chlorine,
steel,
phosphate &
gold production
** metal
smelting** manufacture & repair of weather and electronic devices
**
incineration of municipal waste streams
* medical applications, including vaccinations
**
dentistry** cosmetic industries
* laboratory work involving mercury or
sulfur compounds
Mercury also enters into the environment through the disposal (e.g., landfilling, incineration) of certain products. Products containing mercury include: auto parts,
batteries, fluorescent bulbs, medical products, thermometers, and thermostats.
[[3]] Due to health concerns (see below),
toxics use reduction efforts are cutting back or eliminating mercury in such products. For example, most
thermometers now use pigmented
alcohol instead of mercury. Mercury thermometers are still occasionally used in the medical field because they are more accurate than alcohol thermometers, though both are being replaced by electronic thermometers. Mercury thermometers are still widely used for certain scientific applications because of their greater accuracy and working range.
One of the worst
industrial disasters in history was caused by the dumping of mercury compounds into
Minamata Bay, Japan. The
Chisso Corporation, a
fertilizer and later petrochemical company, was found responsible for polluting the bay from 1932–1968. It is estimated that over 3,000 people suffered various deformities, severe mercury poisoning symptoms or death from what became known as
Minamata disease.
See
mercury poisoningMercury should be handled with care. Containers of mercury should be securely sealed to avoid spills and evaporation. Heating of mercury, or compounds of mercury that may decompose when heated, should always be carried out with adequate ventilation in order to avoid human exposure to mercury vapor.
Occupational exposure
Due to the health effects of mercury exposure, industrial and commercial uses are regulated in many countries. The
World Health Organization,
OSHA, and
NIOSH all treat mercury as an occupational hazard, and have established specific occupational exposure limits. Environmental releases and disposal of mercury are regulated in the U.S. primarily by the
Environmental Protection Agency.
Mercury in fish
Fish and
shellfish have a natural tendency to concentrate mercury in their bodies, often in the form of
methylmercury, a highly toxic organic compound of mercury. Species of fish that are high on the
food chain, such as
shark,
swordfish,
king mackerel,
albacore tuna, and
tilefish contain higher concentrations of mercury than others. This is because mercury is stored in the muscle tissues of fish, and when a predatory fish eats another fish, it assumes the entire body burden of mercury in the consumed fish. Since fish are less efficient at depurating than accumulating methylmercury, fish-tissue concentrations increase over time. Thus species that are high on the
food chain amass body burdens of mercury that can be ten times higher, or more, than the species they consume. This process is called
biomagnification. The complexities associated with mercury fate and transport are relatively succinctly described by USEPA in their 1997 Mercury Study Report to Congress. Because methylmercury and high levels of elemental mercury can be particularly toxic to unborn or young children, organizations such as the
U.S. EPA and FDA recommend that women who are pregnant or plan to become pregnant within the next one or two years, as well as young children avoid eating more than 6 ounces (one average meal) per week. In the United States the FDA has an action level for methyl mercury in commercial marine and freshwater fish that is 1.0 parts per million (ppm), and in Canada the limit for the total of mercury content is 0.5 (ppm) [1,2].
Species with characteristically low levels of mercury include
shrimp,
tilapia,
salmon,
pollock, and
catfish (FDA March 2004). The FDA characterizes shrimp, catfish, pollock, salmon, and canned light tuna as low-mercury seafood, although recent tests have indicated that up to 6 percent of canned light tuna may contain high levels.
[Chicago Tribune]The effects of consuming fish high in mercury is in dispute with the University of Rochester's study of people in the Republic of the Seychelles. While there is no doubt high level exposure to methyl mercury is definitely toxic, low level exposure isn't.
[[4]] A recent Harvard Medical School study of mothers and their infants suggests that the nutritional benefits of fish outweigh the effects of mercury.
[Maternal Fish Consumption, Hair Mercury, and Infant Cognition in a U.S. Cohort] In the HMS study, each additional weekly serving of fish consumed by the mother during pregnancy was associated with an increase in infant cognition.
Release of mercury into the environment
|
The environmental consideration of mercury use in a particular product can sometimes be complicated. For instance compact fluorescent light bulbs, which use a very small amount of mercury (in 2004 two-thirds of CFL lamps sold contained 5 mg Hg or less per bulb, while 96 percent contained 10 mg or less), due to their far higher efficiency over incandescent bulbs actually emit less mercury to the environment when they are powered using energy from a coal power plant. |
|
Mercury use of compact fluorescent bulb vs. incandescent bulb when powered by electricity generated from coal. |
The primary sources of mercury to the environment are
fossil fuel burning (primarily
coal) and solid waste
incineration (Nriagu & Pacyna, 1988).
The United States
Clean Air Act, passed in 1990, put mercury on a list of toxic pollutants which need to be controlled to the greatest possible extent. Thus, certain industries that emit mercury into the environment must install maximum achievable control technologies (MACT). However, a March 2005 EPA rule
[[5]] took power plants off the list of sources which must reduce mercury to the maximum extent. Instead, a
cap and trade rule was issued, with most of the reductions in mercury pollution from power plants beginning in the year 2018. The rule was being subjected to legal challenges from several states in 2005.
Mercury and aluminium
Mercury readily combines with
aluminium to form an
amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact. However, when the amalgam is exposed to air, the aluminium oxidizes, leaving behind mercury. The oxide flakes away, exposing more mercury amalgam, which repeats the process. This process continues until the supply of amalgam is exhausted, and since it releases mercury, a small amount of mercury can "eat through" a large amount of aluminium over time, by progressively forming amalgam and relinquishing the aluminium as oxide.
Aluminium in air is ordinarily protected by a molecule-thin layer of its own oxide (which is not porous to oxygen). Mercury coming into contact with this oxide does no harm. However, if any elemental aluminium is exposed (even by a recent scratch), the mercury may combine with it, starting the process described above, and potentially damaging a large part of the aluminium before it finally ends (Ornitz 1998).
For this reason, restrictions are placed on the use and handling of mercury in proximity with aluminium. In particular, mercury is not allowed aboard aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft.
Power plants in the U.S., according to U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, are one of the main emitters of mercury " 48 tonnes a year
History
*American Dental Association. (
January 9,
2004).
ADA statement on dental amalgam. Retrieved
April 10,
2005.
*Brown, R.H. (
December 19 2003).
Mercury's fall from medicine to toxin. Georgia Public Policy Foundation. Retrieved
April 3,
2005. "Permission to reprint in whole or in part is hereby granted, provided the author and his affiliations are cited."
*Goldwater, L.J. (1955).
Hat Industry. In: Mercury; a History of Quicksilver. York Press. Retrieved
April 9,
2005.
*Kelly, E. (1676).
The stone of the philosophers. Transcribed by: L. Roberts. Retrieved
April 3,
2005.
*Mercury in Schools. (
August 20,
2004).
Mercury through the Ages. Retrieved
April 5,
2005.
* Pimple, K.D. Pedroni, J.A. Berdon, V. (2002, July 09).
Syphilis in history. Poynter Center for the Study of Ethics and American Institutions at Indiana University-Bloomington. Retrieved on April 17, 2005.
*U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (
April 1,
2004).
Drugs for human use: New drugs. In: Food and drugs. Code of Federal Regulations. Retrieved
April 3,
2005.
*
GotMercury.Org, a mercury-in-fish calculator, which uses FDA mercury data with the EPA's formula to determine your safe exposure.*
EPA fish consumption guidelines*
ATSDR - ToxFAQs™: Mercury*
ATSDR - Public Health Statement: Mercury*
ATSDR - ALERT! Patterns of Metallic Mercury Exposure, 6/26/97*
ATSDR - MMG: Mercury*
ATSDR - Toxicological Profile: Mercury*
National Pollutant Inventory - Mercury and compounds Fact Sheet*
The Why Files: Mercury Miasma*
WebElements.com – Mercury*
Material Safety Data Sheet – Mercury*
Hg 80 Mercury*
Global Mercury Assessment report 2002 by the
UNEP.
*
A summary of the UNEP report by
GreenFacts.
*
Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC): Mercury Contamination in Fish guide —
NRDC*
Global Mercury Trade*
Euro MPs back mercury crackdown*
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Clean Air Mercury Rule*Calvert J.B. (
29 May 2004).
Mercury: The lore of mercury, especially its uses in science and engineering. Retrieved
April 5,
2005.
*FDA (March 2004)
What you need to know about mercury in fish and shellfish, FDA, Washington D.C., March 2004. Retrieved
29 January 2006.
*Kolev, S.T. Bates, N.
Mercury (UK PID). National Poisons Information Service: Medical Toxicology Unit (London Centre).
*Ornitz, Barry L. (1998), "Re: Aluminium Alloys and Mercury and FEATHERS," USENET sci.engr.chem,
, 15 December 1998. Retrieved 29 January 2006.
