Military history of Puerto Rico
The
military history of
Puerto Rico dates back to the 16th century, when
Spanish conquistadores battled against the native
Tainos. The island was ruled by the
Spanish Empire for four centuries, during which the Puerto Ricans defended themselves against invasions from the
British,
French, and
Dutch. The island was invaded by the
United States during the
Spanish-American War, and Spain officially ceded it under the terms of the
1898 Treaty of Paris which ended the war. It is now a
United States territory and Puerto Ricans, as citizens of the United States, have participated in every major conflict involving the United States from
World War I onward. The following is a history of the military events in which Puerto Ricans have participated.
After the success of
Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the
New World, he followed up soon afterwards with a second voyage. Unlike the first, this voyage was colonial rather than exploratory. On November 19, 1493, Columbus discovered the island of Puerto Rico. It was inhabited by native islanders known as Tainos, who belonged to the
Arawak group of
indigenous peoples. The Tainos called the island "Boriken." Columbus named the island "
San Juan Bautista" in honor of
Saint John the Baptist. Eventually it took the name
Puerto Rico ("Rich Port"), and the capital city became
San Juan. The
conquistador Juan Ponce de León was among the many men who accompanied Columbus on this trip.
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Cacique Agüeybaná greeting Juan Ponce de Leon |
When Ponce de León arrived in Puerto Rico, he was well received by the cacique
Agüeybaná, leader of the Taino tribes in the island. The first colonists, besides the conquistadors, were farmers and miners in search of
gold. Ponce de León became the first governor of Puerto Rico, by appointment of the Spanish Crown. In 1508, he founded the first settlement in Puerto Rico, located between the modern-day cities of
Bayamón and San Juan, and named it
Caparra. Shortly after being named Governor, Ponce de León and the other conquistadors forced the Tainos to work in the mines and to construct fortifications. Many Tainos died as a result of this cruel treatment. In 1510, Agüeybaná II (the Cacique's brother) and a group of Tainos led a Spaniard named
Diego Salcedo to a river and drowned him, therefore proving to his people that the white men were not gods as they had thought. Upon realizing this, Agüeybaná led the first rebellion in the island, against the better armed Spanish forces. The colonists formed a citizens'
militia to defend themselves against the attacks. Agüeybaná was shot and killed, and the event which was the first military action in Puerto Rico came to an end.
Puerto Rico was considered the "Key to the Antilles" by the Spanish, as its location was important as a way station and port for Spanish vessels. In 1540, the Spanish settlers began the construction of the fort
El Morro ("the promontory") with revenue from
Mexican mines. The initial phase of the construction was completed in 1589. El Morro was the island's main military fortification in San Juan and was guarded by professional soldiers. Puerto Rico's only defense was a handful of soldiers and the local militia, made up of volunteers. These units were able to defend themselves against many pirate attacks. On
October 11,
1528, the French, in an attempt to capture the island, sacked and burned the settlement of
San Germán. They also destroyed many of the island's first settlements—including Guánica, Sotomayor, Daguao and Loiza—before the local militia forced them to retreat. The only settlement that remained was San Juan.
The English
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Juan Ponce de Leon II |
Juan Ponce de León II, born in San Juan and grandson of Juan Ponce de León, organized a military expedition in the island and established a settlement on the island of
Trinidad in 1569. Ponce de León built the "town of the Circumcision", probably around modern Laventille. In 1570 this settlement was abandoned, possibly because of the raids by the
Caribs which resulted in the death of de Leon's son. Ponce de León II, who had been the first native-born Puerto Rican to assume temporary governorship of the island, retired soon thereafter and led a religious life.
In 1585, war broke out between England and Spain. Fighting was not limited to Europe, but extended to their territories in the Americas.
Sir Francis Drake was the
vice-admiral in command of the
Royal Navy which overcame the
Spanish Armada that was attempting to invade England. On November 22, 1595, Drake and
Sir John Hawkins invaded the island with 26 vessels. Spanish gunmen from El Morro shot a cannonball through the cabin of Drake's flagship. Unable to take the island, Drake set San Juan on fire; in 1596, Drake died of
dysentery after a second defeat while again attacking San Juan. On June 15, 1598, the British fleet, led by George Clifford, landed in Santurce and held the island for several months. He was forced to abandon the island upon an outbreak of bacillary dysentery among his troops. In 1599, 400 additional soldiers and 46 cannons were sent to the island along with a new governor, Alonso de Mercado, to rebuild the city.
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Captain Antonio de los Reyes Correa |
The British continued their attacks against the Spanish colonies in the caribbean and were able to take minor islands, including the island of Vieques, which is situated to the east of Puerto Rico. On August 5, 1702, the city of Arecibo was invaded by the British. Only 30 militia members, armed with spears and
machetes and under the command of Captain
Antonio de los Reyes Correa, defended the city from the British, who were armed with
muskets and
swords. At the end of the battle, there were 22 British dead on land and eight at sea. The British left in defeat, and the city of Arecibo was saved. Reyes Correa was declared a
national hero and was awarded the
Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie ("Gold Medal of the Royal Image") by
King Philip V, who also gave him the title of "Captain of Infantry." The Regimiento Fijo de Puerto Rico was organized in 1741. The Fijo, as it was known, came about because the Puerto Rican criollos had for some time been petitioning the Spanish Crown to allow Puerto Ricans to serve in the regular Spanish army. Up to that time criollos were not allowed to serve as regular, full-time soldiers. The Fijo not only served in the defense of Puerto Rico but in Spain's overseas possessions as well. It covered itself with glory in battles in Santo Domingo, other islands in the Caribbean and in South America, most notably in Venezuela. However, Puerto Rican complaints that the Fijo was being used to suppress the revolution there caused the Crown to bring the Fijo home and in 1815, mustered it out of service.
In 1765, the Spanish Crown sent Field Marshall
Alejandro O'Reilly to Puerto Rico to form an organized militia. O'Reilly, known as the "Father of the Puerto Rican Militia," took it upon himself to instill a sense of military discipline in the local troops. The training which he oversaw was to bring fame and glory to the militia in future military engagements. He nicknamed the civilian militia the "Disciplined Militia." O'Reilly was appointed governor of colonial Louisiana in 1769 where he became known as "Bloody O'Reilly".
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General Bernardo de Gálvez |
During the
American Revolutionary War, Spain lent the rebelling colonists the use of its ports in Puerto Rico, through which they received financial aid and arms for their cause. Puerto Rican volunteers fought the British, alongside the
Continental Army, in the Battle of Massachusetts in 1775, under the command of Captain General Torre. An incident occurred in the coast of Mayagüez, in 1777, between two
Continental Navy ships, the
Eudawook and the
Henry, and a Royal Navy warship, the
HMS Glasgow. Both American ships were chased by the larger and more powerful
Glasgow. The American ships were close to the coast of Mayagüez and members of the Puerto Rican militia of that town, realizing that something was wrong, signaled for the ships to dock at the towns Bay. After the ships docked, the crews of both ships got off and some Mayagüezanos boarded and raised the Spanish flag on both ships. The commander of the
Glasgow became aware of the situation and asked the islands governor, Jose Dufresne to turn over the ships. Governor Dufresne refused and ordered the English warship out of the Puerto Rican dock. The governor of
Louisiana,
Bernardo de Gálvez (1746-1786), was named general of the Spanish colonial army in North America. In 1779, Galvez and his troops, composed of Puerto Ricans and other Hispanic groups, distracted the British from the revolution by capturing the cities of
Baton Rouge,
Mobile,
Pensacola and
St. Louis. Galvez and his troops also provided the Continental Army with guns, cloth, gunpowder and medicine shipped from
Cuba up the
Mississippi River.
On February 17, 1797, the appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Ramón de Castro, who was also a
brigadier general in the Spanish Army, received the news that England had invaded the Caribbean island of Trinidad. Governor Ramón de Castro believed that Puerto Rico would be the next objective of the British and that they would once again attempt to invade the island. He decided to put the militia on alert and to prepare the island's forts against any military action. On
April 17, 1797, British ships under the command of Sir
Ralph Abercromby, approached the coastal town of
Loíza, to the east of San Juan. On April 18, British soldiers and German mercenaries ("
Hessians") landed on Loíza's beach. Under the command of Brigadier Ramón de Castro, British ships were attacked with artillery and mortar fire from both El Morro and the San Gerónimo fortresses. The British twice tried to take the Martín Peña Bridge, which would lead to San Juan, but after fiercely fighting the Spanish forces and local militia they were defeated in both of their attempts. The invasion had failed because a total of 16,000 Puerto Rican volunteers and Spanish troops fought back and defended the island. The British also attacked
Aguadilla and Punta Salinas, but they were defeated, and the British troops that had landed on the island were taken prisoner. The British retreated on April 30, 1797 to their ships and on May 2, 1797 set sails towards north. Because of the defeat given the british forces governor Ramon de Castro petitoned Spanish King Charles IV some recognitions for the victors; he was promoted to Field Marshall and others where promoted and given some pay raises.
On December 1797 the British also attacked
Aguadilla but they were defeated. The British persited to invade Puerto Rico with unsuccessful skirmishes on the coastal towns of Ponce, Cabo Rojo, Mayaguez until 1802 when the war with England finally came to an end.
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Capt. Miguel Enriquez |
Spain and Britain were in a constant power struggle in the New World. Puerto Rican
privateering of British ships was encouraged by the Spanish Crown. Captains
Miguel Enríquez and
Roberto Cofresi were two of the most famous pirates. Enríquez was a
shoemaker by occupation. In the later years of the 18th century, Enríquez decided to try his luck as a pirate. He showed great valor in intercepting English merchant ships and other ships dedicated to
contraband that were infesting the seas of Puerto Rico and the
Atlantic Ocean in general. In 1811, Miguel Enríquez participated in the expeditionary force, under the command of Juan Rosello, which fought and defeated the British in the island of Vieques. Miguel Enríquez was received as a national hero when he returned the island of Vieques back to the Spanish Empire and to the governorship of Puerto Rico. In recognition of his services, the Spanish Crown awarded Miguel Enríquez with the Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie (The Gold Medal of the Royal Image), named him "Captain of the Seas and Land" and gave him a
letter of marque and reprisal.
In the case of Captain Roberto Cofresi, the Spanish government received many complaints from the nations whose ships he attacked. The Spanish government, which normally encouraged piracy against other nations, was pressured and felt obliged to pursue and capture the famous pirate. Cofresi and his men attacked eight ships, amongst them an American ship. In 1824, Captain John Slout of the
U.S. Naval Forces and his schooner "Grampus" engaged Cofresi in a fierce battle. The pirate Cofresi was captured along with eleven of his crew members and was turned over to the Spanish Government. He was sent to jail in
El Castillo del Morro in
San Juan. Cofresi was judged by a Spanish Council of War, found guilty and executed by firing squad, on
March 29 1825.
The British were not the only enemies that Spain faced in the Caribbean during this period. France had threatened to invade the Spanish Colony of
Santo Domingo. In 1808 the Spanish Crown sent their Navy under the command of Puerto Rican Admiral
Ramon Power y Giralt to prevent the invasion of Santo Domingo by the
French by enforcing a
blockade. He was successful and was proclaimed a hero by the Spanish Government.
The Dutch
The Netherlands was a world military and commercial power by 1625, competing in the Caribbean with the British. The Dutch wanted to establish a military stronghold in the area, and dispatched Captain Balduino Enrico (Boudewijn Hendricksz) with the task of capturing Puerto Rico. On
September 24,
1625, Enrico arrived at the coast of San Juan with 17 ships and 2,000 men. The governor of Puerto Rico, Juan de Haros, was an experienced military man, and, expecting an attack in the section known as Boqueron, had that area fortified. However, the Dutch took another route and landed in La Puntilla.
De Haro realized that an invasion was inevitable and ordered 300 men stationed at El Morro Castle and the city of San Juan evacuated. He also had former governor Juan de Vargas organize an armed resistance in the interior of the island. On
September 25 Enrico attacked San Juan, besieging El Morro Castle and
La Fortaleza (the Governor's Mansion). He invaded the capital city and set up his headquarters in La Fortaleza. The Dutch were counterattacked by the civilian militia on land and by the cannons of the Spanish troops in El Morro Castle. The land battle left 60 Dutch soldiers dead and Enrico wounded. The Dutch ships at sea were boarded by Puerto Ricans who defeated those aboard. After a long battle, the Spanish soldiers and volunteers of the city's militia were able to defend the city from the attack and save the island from an invasion. On
October 21, Enrico set La Fortaleza and the city ablaze upon his retreat. He then tried to invade the island by attacking the town of
Aguada. He was again defeated by the local militia and abandoned the idea of invading Puerto Rico.
South America
The Spanish colonies began to revolt against Spanish rule during this period. Brigadier General
Antonio Valero de Bernabe was a Puerto Rican military leader who became known in Latin America as the "Liberator from Puerto Rico". Valero was a recent graduate of the Spanish Military Academy when
Napoleon Bonaparte convinced
King Charles IV of Spain to permit him to pass through Spanish soil with the sole purpose of attacking
Portugal. When Napoleon refused to leave, the Spanish government declared war. Valero joined the Spanish Army and helped defeat Napoleon's army at the
Battle of Zaragoza. Valero became a hero; he was awarded many decorations and was promoted to the rank of colonel.
When
Ferdinand VII assumed the throne of Spain in 1813, Valero became critical of the new king's policies towards the Spanish colonies in Latin America. He developed a keen hatred of the monarchy, resigned his commission in the army, and headed for
Mexico. There he joined the insurgent army headed by
Agustín de Iturbide, in which Valero was named chief of staff. He fought for
Mexico's independence from Spain, and was victorious. After the Mexican victory, Iturbide proclaimed himself Emperor of Mexico. Since Valero had developed anti-monarchist feelings following his experiences in Spain, he then revolted against Iturbide. Things didn't go well, and he tried to escape, but was captured by a Spanish pirate, who turned him over to the Spanish authorities in
Cuba, where he was imprisoned. Valero escaped with the help of a group of men that were pro-Bolívar. Upon learning of Bolívar's dream of creating a unified Latin America, including Puerto Rico and Cuba, Valero decided to join him. Valero stopped in
St. Thomas, where he established contacts with the Puerto Rican independence movement. He then traveled to
Venezuela, were he was met by General Santander.
He next joined
Simón Bolívar, and fought alongside "The Liberator" against Spain, gaining his confidence and admiration. Bernabe was named Military Chief of the Department of Panama, Governor of Puerto Cabello, Chief of Staff of Colombia, Minister of War and Maritime of Venezuela, and in 1849 was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General.
Puerto Rico
On
April 13,
1855, a
mutiny broke out among the artillerymen in
Fort San Cristóbal. They were protesting against an extended two years of military service imposed by the island's Spanish governor, Garcia Cambia. The mutineers pointed their cannons towards San Juan, creating a state of panic among the population. Upon their surrender, the governor had the eight men arrested and
sentenced to death by
firing squad.
Many Spanish colonies had gained their independence by the mid-1850s. In Puerto Rico there were two groups: the loyalists, who were loyal to Spain, and the
independentistas, who advocated independence. In 1866, Dr.
Ramón Emeterio Betances,
Segundo Ruiz Belvis, and other independence advocates met in
New York City where they formed the Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico. An outcome from this venture was the plan of sending an armed expedition from the
Dominican Republic to invade the island. Several revolutionary cells were formed in the western towns and cities of Puerto Rico. Two of the most important cells were at
Mayagüez, led by
Mathias Brugman and code named "Capa Prieto" and at Lares, code-named "Centro Bravo" and headed by
Manuel Rojas. "Centro Bravo" was the main center of operations and was located in the Rojas plantation of El Triunfo. Manuel Rojas was named "Commander of the Liberation Army" by Betances.
Mariana Bracetti (sister-in-law of Manuel) was named "Leader of the Lares Revolutionary Council." Upon the request of Betances, Bracetti knitted the revolutionary
Flag of Lares (
Bandera de Lares).
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| Ramón Emeterio Betances centerOriginal Lares Revolutionary Flag |
The Spanish authorities found out about the plot and were able to confiscate Betance's armed ship before it arrived in Puerto Rico. The Mayor of the town of
Camuy, Manuel Gonzalez (leader of that town's revolutionary cell), was arrested and charged with treason. He learned that the Spanish Army was aware of the independence plot, and escaped to warn Manuel Rojas. Alerted, the revolutionists decided to start the revolution as soon as possible, and set the date for
September 28,
1868. Mathias Brugman and his men joined up with Manuel Rojas's men and with about 800 men and women, marched on and took the town of Lares. This was to be known as "el
Grito de Lares." The revolutionists entered the town's church and placed Bracetii's revolutionary flag on the High Altar, as a sign that the revolution had begun. They declared Puerto Rico to be the "Republic of Puerto Rico" and named
Francisco Ramirez its President. Manuel and his poorly armed followers proceeded to march on to the town of
San Sebastián, armed only with clubs and machetes. The Spanish Army had been forewarned, and awaited with superior fire power. The revolutionists were met with deadly fire. The revolt failed, many revolutionists were killed, and at least 475, including Manuel Rojas and Mariana Bracetii, were imprisoned in the jail of
Arecibo and sentenced to death.
Others fled and went into hiding. Mathias Brugman was hiding in a local farm where he was betrayed by farm hand named Francisco Quiñones. He was captured and executed on the spot. In 1869, fearing another revolt, the Spanish Crown disbanded the Puerto Rican Militia, which had been composed almost entirely of native-born Puerto Ricans and also the Compañia de Artilleros Morenos de Cangrejos, a separate company of black Puerto Ricans. They then organized the Volunteer Institute, composed entirely of Spaniards and their sons.
Cuba
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Gen. Juan Rius Rivera |
In 1869, the incoming governor of Puerto Rico, Jose Laureano Sanz, in an effort to ease tensions in the island, dictated a general amnesty and released all who were involved with the Grito de Lares revolt, from prison. Many of these former prisoners joined the Cuban Liberation Army and fought against Spain. Among the many Puerto Ricans who volunteered to fight for Cuba's independence were
Juan Rius Rivera and
Francisco Gonzalo Marin a.k.a. "Pachin Marin".
Juan Rius Rivera was released from prison for his participation in the Lares revolt. He joined the Cuban Liberation Army and was given the rank of General. He fought alongside Gen.
Máximo Gómez in Cuba's
Ten Years' War. He later fought alongside Gen.
Antonio Maceo and upon Maceo's death was named Commander-in-Chief of the Cuban Liberation Army. After Cuba gained its independence, Gen. Juan Rius Rivera became an active political figure in the new nation.
Francisco Gonzalo Marin was a renowned poet and journalist in Puerto Rico who joined the Cuban Liberation Army upon learning of the death of his brother Wecenlao, in the battlefields of Cuba. Marin, who was given the rank of Lieutenant, befriended and fought alongside
José Martí. In November 1897 Lt. Marin died from the wounds he received in a skirmish against the Spanish Army.
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Capt. Angel Rivero Mendez |
The
United States declared war on Spain in 1898, following the sinking of the battleship "
Maine" in Havana harbor, Cuba, beginning the
Spanish-American War. One of the United States's principal objectives was to take control of Spanish possessions Puerto Rico and
Cuba in the Atlantic, and the
Philippines and
Guam in the Pacific.
On
May 10,
1898, Spanish forces, under the command of
Capt. Angel Rivero Mendez, in the fortress of San Cristobal in San Juan exchanged fire with the
USS Yale, and on
May 12 a fleet of 12 American ships
bombarded San Juan. On
June 25, the
USS Yosemite arrived in San Juan and blockaded the port. On
July 25, General
Nelson A. Miles entered the southern town of
Guánica with 3,300 troops and with the exception of some minor skirmishes, went practically unopposed. One of the most notable skirmishes between Spanish forces and Puerto Rican volunteers with the Americans occurred on
July 26. The Spanish forces engaged the 6th Massachusetts in a firefight in what became known as the
Battle of Yauco. Two Spanish soldiers died. The Americans were well received by the Puerto Rican population in general, making the invasion much easier, and the Spanish surrendered without other major incidents. The total casualties of the Puerto Rican campaign were 450 Spanish and Puerto Rican dead or wounded, plus four dead and 39 wounded Americans.
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"1st Kentucky Volunteers" in Puerto Rico, 1898 |
On
August 8, 1898, the Spanish-American War ended, and upon the signing of the Treaty of Paris on
December 10, Puerto Rico became a territory of the United States. The Spanish troops had already left by
October 18, and the United States named General John R. Brooke as military governor of the island. On
July 1,
1899, "The Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry, United States Army" was created, and approved by the
U.S. Congress on
May 27,
1908. The regiment was a segregated, all-volunteer unit made up of 1,969 Puerto Ricans.
In 1897, before the onset of fighting in Puerto Rico,
Juan Alonso Zayas, born in San Juan, was a Second Lieutenant in the Spanish Army when he received orders to head for the Philippines to command of the 2nd Expeditionary Battalion stationed in
Baler. He arrived in
Manila, the capital, in May 1897. There he took a vessel and headed for Baler, on the island of
Luzon. The distance between Manila and Baler is 62 miles (100 km); if traveled through the jungles and badly-built roads, the actual distance was 144 miles (230 km). At that time a system of communication between Manila and Baler was almost non-existent. The only way Baler received news from Manila was by way of vessels. The Spanish colonial government was under constant attack from local Filipino groups who wanted independence. Zayas's mission was to fortify Baler against any possible attack. Among his plans for the defense of Baler was to convert the local church of San Luis de Tolosa into a fort.
The independence advocates, under the leadership of Colonel Calixto Vilacorte, were called "
insurgents" (
tagalos) by the Spanish crown. On
June 28,
1898, they demanded the surrender of the Spanish army. The Spanish governor of the region, Enrique de las Morena y Fossi, refused. Immediately, the Filipinos attacked Baler in a battle that was to last for seven months. Despite being outnumbered and suffering hunger and disease, the battalion did not capitulate. In the meantime, Zayas and the rest of the battalion were totally unaware of the Spanish-American War that was going on. On August 1898, the hostilities between the United States and Spain came to an end. The Philippines became a U.S. possession under the accordance of the Treaty of Paris. The battalion at Baler found out about the Spanish-American War and its aftermath in May 1899, and surrendered on
June 2,
1899. They were unaware that they had been fighting for a possession that was no longer theirs. The 32 survivors of Zayas Battalion were sent to Manila, where they boarded a ship for Spain. In Spain, they were given a hero's welcome and became known as
los Ultimos de Baler—"the Last of Baler."
Puerto Rican National Guard
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Major General Luis R. Esteves (Army) |
In 1906, a group of Puerto Ricans met with the appointed Governor Winthrop, and suggested the organization of a Puerto Rican National Guard. The petition failed because the
U.S. Constitution prohibits the formation of any armed force within the United States and its territories without the authorization of Congress.
On
June 19,
1915, Major General
Luis R. Esteves of the
U.S. Army became the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the
United States Military Academy at
West Point, New York. While he attended West Point, he tutored fellow classmate
Dwight D. Eisenhower in
Spanish; a second language was required in order to graduate. Esteves graduated first in his class. He was a Second Lieutenant in the
23rd Infantry Division of the army under the command of
John J. Pershing when he was sent to
El Paso,
Texas in the
Pancho Villa Expedition. From El Paso, he was sent to the town of Polvo, where he was appointed mayor and judge by its citizens. Esteves helped organize the 23rd Battalion, which would be composed of Puerto Ricans and be stationed in
Panama during
World War I. He would also in the future play a key role in the formation of the Puerto Rican National Guard.
World War I
Upon the outbreak of
World War I, the
U.S. Congress approved the
Jones-Shafroth Act, which granted Puerto Ricans
citizenship. As a result, many Puerto Ricans became eligible for the military
draft. On
May 3,
1917, the Regiment recruited 1,969 men. The 295th and 296 Infantry Regiments were created in Puerto Rico. The first shot of World War I (by the US) was not fired in Europe, it was fired in Puerto Rico by a Puerto Rican serving in the US Army, Lieutenant
Teofilo Marxuach. Lieutenant Marxuach was officer of the day at El Morro Castle, at the entrance to San Juan Bay, when war was declared. An armed supply ship for German submarines in the Atlantic, the Odenwald, tried to force its way out of the bay. Lieutenant Marxuach opened fire from the walls of the fortress and forced the ship to return to port and be interned.
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Lieutenant Pedro Albizu Campos (U.S. Army) |
On
May 17, 1917, the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry was sent to guard the
Panama Canal in defense of the
Panama Canal Zone. In
New York, many Puerto Ricans joined the 396th Infantry Regiment which was mostly composed of
Afro-Americans. They were not allowed to fight alongside their white counterparts; however, they were permitted to fight as members of a French unit in French uniforms. They fought along the
Western Front in
France, and their reputation earned them the nickname of "the Harlem Hell Fighters" by the
Germans. Among them was Lieutenant
Pedro Albizu Campos, who later became the leader of the
Puerto Rican Nationalist Party and
Rafael Hernandez, considered by many as Puerto Rico's greatest composer. The 396th was awarded French Croix De Guerre for battlefield gallantry by the President of France. The Porto Rico Regiment returned to Puerto Rico on March 1919 and was renamed the
65th Infantry Regiment under the Reorganization Act of
June 4,
1920.
The need for a Puerto Rican National Guard unit became apparent to Major General Luis R. Esteves, who had served as instructor of Puerto Rican Officers for the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry at Camp Las Casas in Puerto Rico. His request was met with the approval of the government and Puerto Rican Legislature. In 1919, the first regiment of the Puerto Rican National Guard was formed, and General Luis R. Esteves became the first official Commandant of the Puerto Rican National Guard.
Puerto Rico suffered greatly during the
Great Depression of the 1930s, and many Puerto Ricans moved to the
East Coast of the United States looking for jobs and a better way of life. On the island, the unemployment rate continued to rise. Many of the Puerto Ricans who were unable to find a job looked to the Armed Forces of the United States as a source of employment. Not only were they paid better than at the few other available jobs, but they were also guaranteed three meals a day, clothing, and shelter.
World War II
In 1942, Tech4
Carmen Contreras-Bozak was a member of the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company which was the first WAAC Company to go overseas, setting sail from New York Harbor for Europe on January 1943. The unit arrived in Northern Africa on January 27, 1943 and rendered overseas duties in
Algiers within General
Dwight D. Eisenhower's theatre headquarters. Contreras-Bozak was the first Hispanic to serve in the
U.S. Women's Army Corps as an interpreter and in numerous administrative positions.
After the United States declared war against the
Empire of Japan and
Nazi Germany, recruiters were sent to the island. In 1944, the Army Nurse Corps decided to actively recruit Puerto Rican nurses so that Army hospitals would not have to deal with the language barriers. Among them was Lieutenant
Carmen Durnier, who became one of the first Puerto Rican female military officers.
In 1942, the
65th Infantry underwent an extensive training program, and in 1943 it was sent to
Panama to protect the
Pacific and the
Atlantic sides of the
isthmus.
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Lt. Gen. Pedro del Valle, (USMC) |
In 1944, the regiment was sent to
North Africa, arriving at
Casablanca, where they underwent further training. By
April 29, 1944, the Regiment had landed in
Italy and moved on to
Corsica. On
September 22, 1944, the 65th Infantry landed in
France and was committed to action on the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava. There was a total of 47 battle casualties. The first Puerto Rican to be killed in action from the
65th Infantry was Sergeant Angel Martinez, from the town of
Sabana Grande. On
April 20, the 65th overran a sub-camp of the
Flossenburg Concentration Camp. On
March 18,
1945, the regiment was sent to the
District of Mannheim and assigned to
military occupation duties. In all, the
65th Infantry participated in the battles of
Naples-Fogis,
Rome-Arno,
central Europe and of the
Rhineland. On
October 27, 1945, the regiment sailed from France, arriving at Puerto Rico on
November 9, 1945. The regiment suffered a total of 23 soldiers killed in action. Other Puerto Ricans who played an important role during the war were Admiral
Horacio Rivero, who was to become the highest ranking Hispanic in the history of the U.S. Navy, provided artillery cover for the Marines landing on
Guadalcanal,
Marshall Islands, and Okinawa; and Lieutenant General
Pedro del Valle, the first Hispanic
Marine Corps general, who played a key role in the
Guadalcanal Campaign and the
Battle of Guam, became the Commanding General of the First Marine Division. Del Valle played an instrumental role in the defeat of the Japanese forces in Okinawa and was in charge of the reorganization of
Okinawa.
Revolt against the United States
In the mid-1940's, Puerto Rico had various pro-independence groups. One such group was the
Puerto Rican Independence Party which believed in gaining the island's independence through the electoral process. Another group was the
Puerto Rican Nationalist Party which believed in the concept of armed revolution. On
October 30,
1950 the nationalists, under the leadership of Dr.
Pedro Albizu Campos staged uprisings in the towns of
Ponce,
Mayagüez,
Naranjito,
Arecibo,
Utuado,
San Juan and
Jayuya.
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Blanca Canales |
The most notable of these occurred in Jayuya in what became known as
El Grito de Jayuya. Nationalist leader
Blanca Canales led the armed nationalists into the town and attacked the police station. A small battle with the police occurred and one officer was killed and three others wounded before the rest dropped their weapons and surrendered. The nationalists cut the
telephone lines and burned the post office. Canales led the group into the town square where the light blue version of the
Puerto Rican Flag was raised (it was against the law to carry a Puerto Rican Flag from 1898 to 1952). In the town square, Canales gave a speech and declared Puerto Rico a free Republic. The town was held by the nationalists for three days.
The United States declared
martial law in Puerto Rico and sent the
Puerto Rico National Guard to attack Jayuya. The town was attacked by air by
U.S. bomber planes and on land by artillery. Even though part of the town was destroyed, news of this military action was prevented from spreading outside of Puerto Rico. It was called an incident between Puerto Ricans. The top leaders of the nationalist party were arrested, including Albizu Campos and Blanca Canales, and sent to jail to serve long prison terms. Griselio Torresola was in the United States where, together with fellow nationalist
Oscar Collazo, he decided to assassinate
President Harry S. Truman. On
November 1, 1950, they attacked the
Blair House where Torresola and a policeman lost their lives. Oscar Collazo was arrested and sentenced to death. His sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment by President Truman, and he eventually received a presidential pardon.
The Korean War
 |
Company "C" of the 65th Infantry on patrol |
On
August 26,
1950, the
65th Infantry departed from Puerto Rico and arrived in Pusan, Korea on
September 23, 1950. It was during the long sea voyage that the men nicknamed the 65th Infantry "Borinqueneers". The name is a combination of the words "Borinquen" (which was what the
Tainos called the island before the arrival if the
Spaniards) and "Buccaneers". The men of the 65th were the first infantrymen to meet the enemy on the battle fields of Korea. Among the hardships suffered by the Puerto Ricans was the lack of warm clothing during the cold and harsh winters. The enemy made many attempts to encircle the Regiment, but each time they failed because of the many casualties inflicted by the 65th. On December 1950, the
U.S. Marines found themselves at the Chosin Reservoir area. In June 1951, The 65th was part of a task force which enabled the Marines to withdraw from the Hauack-on Reservoir. When the Marines were encircled by the
Chinese Communist troops close to the
Manchurian border, the 65th rushed to their defense. As a consequence, the Marines were able to return safely to their ships.
Among the battles and operations in which the 65th participated was the Operation "Killer" of January 1951, becoming the first Regiment to cross the Han River. On April 1951, the Regiment participated in the Uijonber Corridor drives and on June 1951, the 65th was the third Regiment to cross the Han Ton River. The 65th was the Regiment which took and held Cherwon and they were also instrumental in breaking the "Iron Triangle" of Hill 717 on July 1951. On November 1951, the Regiment fought off an attack by two Regimental size enemy units, with success. On
July 3,
1952, the Regiment defended the MLR for 47 days and saw action at Cognac, King and Queen with successful attacks on Chinese positions. On October the Regiment also saw action in the Cherwon Sector and on Iron Horse, Hill 391, whose lower part was called "Jackson Heights". On June 1953, the 2nd
Battalion conducted a series of successful raids on Hill 412 and on November the Regiment successfully counterattacked enemy units in the Numsong Valley and held their positions until the truce signing between all parts involved.
The 65th Infantry was awarded battle participation credits for the following nine campaigns: 1.
UN Defense-1950, 2. UN Offense-1950, 3. CCF Intervention-1950, 4. First UN Counterattack Offensive-1951, 5. UN and CCF Spring Offensive-1951, 6. UN Summer-Fall Offensive-1951, 7. 2nd Korean Winter 1951-52, 8. Korean Summer-Fall-1952 and 9. 3rd Korean Winter-1952-53. Among the awards were 10
Distinguished Service Cross, 256
Silver Star Medals and 595
Bronze Star Medals were awarded to the men of the 65th Infantry. According to "El Nuevo Día Newspaper, 30 May 2004" a total of 756 Puerto Ricans lost their lives in Korea, from all four branches of the U.S. Armed Forces. More then half of these were from the 65th Infantry (This is without including non-Puerto Ricans). Among the Puerto Ricans from the regiment who distinguished themselves are:
*Brigadier General
Antonio Rodriguez Balinas, On
December 23 1951, 1st Lieutenant Antonio Rodriguez Balinas fearlessly walked through a lethal hail of enemy fire directly toward the hostile bunker of the enemy, hurled his hand grenades and single-handedly completely destroyed the position and its occupants near Sorgyon-Myon. He was awarded two
Silver Star medals.
*Colonel
Carlos Betances Ramirez, On
October 28, 1952, Col. Betances, who was the first and only Puerto Rican officer to have commanded an infantry battalion in the Korean War, led his men in the victorious Battle of Jackson Heights. [[Image:Fernando_Luis_Garcia.JPG|right|frame|'''PFC Fernando Luis Garcia, (USMC)''']]
*Master Sergeant
Pedro Rodriguez, earned two Silver Star Medals within a seven day period for his actions defending Hills 476 and 398.
*Staff Sergeant
Modesto Cartagena, the most decorated Hispanic in history, was a Buck Sergeant in 1951 assigned to Company C,
65th Infantry Regiment, 3rd Infantry Division, Cartagena. "With no regard for his own safety," as the official record states, he left his position and charged directly into devastating enemy fire, single-handedly destroying two enemy emplacements on Hill 206, near Yonch'on
North Korea. After taking out the emplacements, he was knocked to the ground twice by exploding enemy grenades. Nevertheless, he got up and attacked three more times, each time destroying an enemy emplacement until he was wounded. His family is leading a petition requesting that he be awarded the Medal of Honor.
Other Puerto Ricans who distinguished themselves during the Korean War were: Private First Class
Fernando Luis Garcia, who belonged to Company I, 3rd Battalion, 5th Marine Division and who became the first Puerto Rican recipient of the
Medal of Honor when he covered a grenade with his body, saving the lives of his fellow Marines. Major General
Salvador E. Felices flew in 19 combat bombing missions over
North Korea.
In 1956, the
65th Infantry Regiment was transferred to the Puerto Rican National Guard. 61,000 Puerto Ricans served in the Korean War, including 18,000 Puerto Ricans who enlisted in the
continental United States.
On February 12, 1951,
General Douglas MacArthur, was quoted in Tokyo saying the following: "The Puerto Ricans forming the ranks of the gallant 65th Infantry on the battlefields of Korea…are writing a brilliant record of achievement in battle and I am proud indeed to have them in this command. I wish that we might have many more like them."
Cuban Missile Crisis
 |
Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr., (U.S. Navy) |
The
Cuban Missile Crisis was a tense confrontation between the
Soviet Union and the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. On
October 22,
1962, Admiral Horacio Rivero was the commander of the American fleet sent by
President John F. Kennedy to confront the Soviets by setting up a quarantine (blockade) of the Soviet ships. He therefore was in the middle of the Cuban Missile Crisis, by being on the front lines of the vessels. The world feared the possibility of nuclear war. On
October 28,
Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered the removal of the Soviet missiles in Cuba, and Kennedy ordered an end of the quarantine of Cuba on
November 20, bringing an end to the crisis. Admiral Rivero served as U.S. Ambassador to Spain from 1972-1975.
Vietnam War
During the
Vietnam War, an estimated 48,000 Puerto Ricans served in the four branches of the armed forces. Four Puerto Ricans were awarded the
Medal of Honor:
 |
Sp4c. Hector Santiago-Colón (U.S. Army) |
*Captain
Humbert Roque Versace, became the first Army
Prisoner of war in
Southeast Asia to posthumously be awarded the Medal of Honor.
*On
November 8,
1966, Captain
Euripides Rubio was mortally wounded at
Tay Ninh Province, but was able to place a smoke grenade behind enemy lines, saving the lives of his comrades and turning the tide of the battle.
*On
November 20,
1967, Private First Class
Carlos Lozada was mortally wounded at Dak To, while providing machine gun cover for his battalion.
*On
June 28,
1968, Specialist
Hector Santiago-Colon distinguished himself at
Quang Tri Province at the cost of his own life while serving as a gunner in a mortar platoon.
In 1968, Major General Salvador E. Felices flew 39 combat bombing missions over
North Vietnam in a
B-52 Stratofortress, as commander of the 306th Bombardment Wing. A total of 345 Puerto Ricans died in Vietnam. Two Puerto Ricans who served in Vietnam currently hold positions in the Administration of
President George W. Bush. They are Dr.
Richard Carmona a former
Green Beret who was awarded two
Purple Heart Medals and was appointed
Surgeon General in March 2002, and Major General
William A. Navas Jr. who was awarded the
Bronze Star Medal and was named
Assistant Secretary of the Navy in
June 6,
2001.
Operation El Dorado Canyon
On
April 14,
1986, in response to acts of terrorism sponsored by
Libyan leader
Muammar al-Qaddafi—in particular, the
Berlin disco bombing of
April 6—and against the backdrop of heightened tension and clashes between the Libyan and U.S. Navies over Libya's disputed territorial water claims in the
Gulf of Sidra, the United States launched a surprise attack on key facilities in
Tripoli and other parts of Libya. The attack was code-named
Operation El Dorado Canyon.
With the acquiescence of the
British government, 24 U.S. Air Force
F-111F fighter-bombers took off from U.S. air bases in England. Attacking in the pre-dawn hours of
April 15, their main objectives were 22 airfields, terrorist training camps, and other military installations. Captain
Fernando L. Ribas-Dominicci was one of the pilots who participated in the Libyan air raid (codenamed
Operation El Dorado Canyon). His F-111 was shot down in action over the disputed
Gulf of Sidra off the Libyan coast. Ribas-Dominicci and his weapons systems officer, Captain
Paul F. Lorence, were the only U.S. casualties. Al-Qaddafi, who was also personally targeted, escaped harm, but his daughter was killed.
Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm
 |
Capt. Manuel Rivera Jr., (USMC) |
In 1990, 1,700 Puerto Rican National Guardsmen were among the 20,000
Hispanics deployed to the
Persian Gulf in Operations
Desert Shield and
Desert Storm. Four Puerto Ricans lost their lives, including Captain
Manuel Rivera of the
Marine Corps, a Puerto Rican from the South
Bronx, who on
January 22,
1991 became the first soldier to be killed in Operation Desert Shield. Rivera had planned on applying for admission to
NASA as an astronaut candidate. However, he was assigned to U.S. Marine Corps VMA 331 upon the outbreak of Operation Desert Shield. He served as personnel officer, intelligence officer and logistics officer and flew in many support missions. Rivera was killed during a support mission over the
Persian Gulf. His body was recovered. On
January 30, 1991, the
U.S. House of Representatives paid tribute to Rivera.
Somalian Civil War
Operation Restore Hope was an American
military operation with the support of the United Nations which was formed to deliver
humanitarian aid and restore order to the
African nation of
Somalia, which was suffering from a severe
famine, anarchy, and domination by a number of
warlords following the collapse of
Siad Barre's Marxist government and the outbreak of the
Somalian Civil War. On
January 30,
1993, Private First Class
Domingo Arroyo Jr., a Marine from Puerto Rico, became the first of the 44 American soldiers killed during the operation. He was ambushed in
Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia, by Somali warlords.
 |
SPC. Frances M. Vega, (U.S. Army) |
In the military campaigns of
Afghanistan and
Iraq in the
War on Terrorism, among those that have perished are the first three Puerto Rican women to die in a foreign combat zone. On
November 2,
2003, Specialist
Frances M. Vega became the first female Puerto Rican soldier born in the United States to die in a war zone. A ground-to-air missile fired by insurgents in
Fallujah hit the
Chinook transport helicopter which Vega was in. She was one of 16 soldiers who lost their lives in the crash that followed. On
March 1,
2005 Specialist
Lizbeth Robles became the first female Puerto Rican soldier born in the island to die in Iraq when her Humvee was involved in an accident. Currently, there are 1,800 Puerto Rican soldiers stationed in Iraq,
Kuwait, Afghanistan and
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Over 1,225 Puerto Ricans have died while serving for the United States. The names of those who perished in combat are inscribed in "El Monumento de la Recordacion" (Monument of Remembrance), which was unveiled on
May 19,
1996 and is situated in front of the Capitol Building in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
General William W. Harris was quoted in the
Puerto Rico Herald as saying, "No ethnic group has greater pride in itself and its heritage then the Puerto Rican people. Nor have I encountered any that can be more dedicated and zealous in support of the democratic principles for which the United States stands. Many Puerto Ricans have fought to the death to uphold them."
U.S. Army*
Fort Buchanan: Guaynabo. The only U.S. Army installation in the Caribbean and the largest military base in Puerto Rico.
*
Army Aviation Support Facility: Located in
Fernando Ribas Dominicci Airport (Isla Grande Airport) in San Juan. Hosts two
C-12 Huron aircraft and ten
UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters.
Army National Guard*
Salinas Training Area (Camp Santiago): Salinas.
*
Fort Allen: Juana Diaz.
U.S. Navy*
Navy Radio Transmitter Facility Aguada: Aguada County.
*
Pico Del Este Site: Pico Del Este. Hosts the Atlantic Fleet Weapons Training Facility.
Roosevelt Roads Naval Station (defunct): Ceiba.
U.S. Coast Guard*
Coast Guard Air Station Borinquen:
Rafael Hernandez Airport.
Air National Guard*
Muñiz Air National Guard Base:
Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport*
Puerto Ricans in the Military*
Historic Documents of Puerto Rico*
Hispanics in the American Revolution*Miller, Paul G. ed (1947) "Historia de Puerto Rico" Rand McNally
*
Tribute to Capt. Manuel Rivera*
The Passing of Private First Class Domingo Arroyo Jr.*
Puerto Rico Herald: Puerto Rico's Proud Military History*
Casualties in Panama Canal Zone*
Casualties in Vietnam War*
Killed in Action*
First US Shot of World War I in Puerto Rico*
Hispanic America*
65th Infantry*
Latino La*
Maryland State Resolution on the Role Played by Hispanics In The Achievement of American Independence*
Mayaguez in the American Revolution*
Luis Fortuño's speech
