Political science
Political science is an
academic and
research discipline that deals with the theory and practice of
politics and the description and
analysis of
political systems and political behavior.
Fields and subfields of political science include
political theory and philosophy,
civics and
comparative politics, national systems, cross-national political analysis, political development,
international relations,
foreign policy,
international law and politics,
public administration, administrative behavior, public law, judicial behavior, and politics and
public policy. Political science also studies
power in international relations and the theory of
Great powers and
Superpowers.
Political science is methodologically diverse. Approaches to the discipline include classical political philosophy,
interpretivism,
structuralism, and
behavioralism,
realism, pluralism, and
institutionalism. Political science, as one of the
social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles,
survey research,
statistical analysis, and model building.
Herbert Baxter Adams is credited with coining the phrase "political science" while teaching history at
Johns Hopkins University.
Antecedents of political science
While the study of politics is first found in the
Western tradition in
Ancient Greece, political science is a late arrival in terms of
social sciences. However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as
moral philosophy,
political philosophy,
political economy,
history, and other fields concerned with
normative determinations of what ought to be and with
deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal
state. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.
The antecedents of politics trace their roots back even earlier than
Plato and
Aristotle, particularly in the works of
Homer,
Hesiod,
Thucydides,
Xenophon, and
Euripides. Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more
literary- and
history- oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to
philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.
During the rule of
Rome, famous historians such as
Polybius,
Livy and
Plutarch documented the rise of the Roman
Republic, and the organization and histories of other nations, while
statesmen like
Julius Caesar,
Cicero and others provided us with examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments.
With the
fall of the Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of
monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition,
Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action. During the
Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as
Augustine of Hippo's
The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of
Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between
church and state were clarified and contested in this period.
In the
Middle East and later other
Islamic areas, works such as the
Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and Epic of Kings by
Ferdowsi provided evidence of political analysis, while the
Islamic aristotelians such as
Avicenna and later
Maimonides and
Averroes, continued
Aristotle's tradition of analysis and
empiricism, writing commentaries on Aristotle's works.
During the
Italian Renaissance,
Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct
empirical observation of political
institutions and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the
Enlightenment further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations.
Political science
The advent of political science as a university discipline is evidenced by the naming of university departments and chairs with the title of political science arising in the
1860s. Integrating political studies of the past into a unified discipline is ongoing, and the history of political science has provided a rich field for the growth of both normative and
positive political science, with each part of the discipline sharing some historical predecessors. The
American Political Science Association was founded in 1903 in an effort to distinguish the study of politics from economics and other social phenomenon.
In the
1950s and the
1960s, a behavioral revolution stressing the systematic and rigorously scientific study of individual and group behavior swept the discipline. At the same time that political science moved toward greater depth of analysis and more sophistication, it also moved toward a closer working relationship with other disciplines, especially
sociology,
economics,
history,
anthropology,
psychology, and
statistics. Increasingly, students of political behavior have used the scientific method to create an intellectual discipline based on the postulating of hypotheses followed by empirical verification and the inference of political trends, and of generalizations that explain individual and group political actions. Over the past generation, the discipline placed an increasing emphasis on relevance, or the use of new approaches and methodologies to solve political and social problems.
Political scientists study the allocation and transfer of
power in decision-making, the roles and systems of governance including governments and international organizations, political behavior and public policies. They measure the success of
governance and specific policies by examining many factors, including stability,
justice,
material wealth, and
peace. Some political scientists seek to advance
positive theses by analyzing politics. Others advance
normative theses, by making specific policy recommendations.
The study of politics is complicated by the frequent involvement of
political scientists in the political process, since their teachings often provide the frameworks within which other commentators, such as
journalists,
special interest groups,
politicians, and the
electorate analyze issues and select options. Political scientists may serve as advisors to specific politicians, or even run for office as politicians themselves. Political scientists can be found working in governments, in political parties or as civil servants. They may be involved with
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or political movements. In a variety of capacities, people educated and trained in political science can add value and expertise to corporations. Private enterprises such as
think tanks, research institutes, polling and public relations firms often employ political scientists. In the United States, political scientists known as "Americanists" look at a variety of data including
elections,
public opinion and public policy such as
Social Security reform, foreign policy, U.S. congressional power, and the
Supreme Court to name only a few issues.
Civics and
comparative politics involve the comparison of different
forms of government in different settings. In the
United States and
Canada, it may also include regional studies; that is, work focusing on a particular state, province or region.
Political theory involves the study of normative questions of
government,
ideology, regimes, movements, and the history of
political philosophy.
International relations focuses on the study of the dynamics of relations between states, and, more recently, on transnational issues such as the
environment,
human trafficking,
trade,
social movements,
labor like
co-operatives, or preventing
terrorism.
The complex interplay of
economic and political choices is reflected in the field of
political economy where political science tries to understand the normative implications of economic structures and theories.
Public Administration studies the implementation, determination and outputs of public policies. It seeks to explain the role of political structure,
bureaucratic politics and
interest group activity on the
public policy output and the policy performance of
public sector entities.
Political elites and political behavior, and the interplay between them, are studied in the field of
political psychology.
Alternative terms for the academic study of politics are
political studies, or even
politics. While
political science implies use of the scientific method,
political studies implies a broader approach. The term
government is used by
Dartmouth College,
Harvard University,
Georgetown University,
Cornell University and the
London School of Economics to describe the field, but the choice of a label for a department often has little to do with how the subject is studied.
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List of political scientists*
Political science basic topics*
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