Pollen
Pollen, sometimes incorrectly called
flower sperm, is a fine to coarse powder consisting of
microgametophytes (
pollen grains), which produce the male
gametes (sperm cells) of
seed plants. Each pollen grain contains vegetative cells (only one in most flowering plants but several in other seed plants) and a generative cell containing a tube nucleus (that produces the pollen tube) and a generative nucleus (that divides to form the two sperm cells). The group of cells is surrounded by a
cellulose cell wall and a thick, tough outer wall made of
sporopollenin.
Pollen is produced in the
microsporangium (contained in the
anther of an
angiosperm flower, male
cone of a
coniferous plant, or male cone of other seed plants). Pollen grains come in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and surface markings characteristic of the species (see photomicrograph at right). Most, but certainly not all, are spherical. Pollen grains of
pines,
firs, and
spruces are winged. The smallest pollen grain, that of the
Forget-me-not plant (
Myosotis sp.), is around 6
µm (0.006
mm) in diameter. The study of pollen is called
palynology and is highly useful in
paleontology,
archeology, and
forensics.
Except in the case of some submerged aquatic plants, the mature pollen-grain has a double wall, a thin delicate wall of unaltered cellulose (the endospore or intine) and a tough outer cuticularized exospore or
exine. The exine often bears spines or warts, or is variously sculptured, and the character of the markings is often of value for identifying genus, species, or even cultivar or individual. In some flowering plants,
germination of the pollen grain often begins before it leaves the microsporangium, with the generative cell forming the two sperm cells.
The transfer of pollen grains to the female reproductive structure (
pistil in angiosperms) is called
pollination. This transfer can be mediated by the wind, in which case the plant is described as
anemophilous (literally wind-loving). Anemophilous plants typically produce great quantities of very lightweight pollen grains, sometimes with air-sacs. Non-flowering seed plants (e.g.,
pine trees) are characteristically anemophilous. Anemophilous flowering plants generally have inconspicuous flowers.
Entomophilous (literally insect-loving) plants produce pollen that is relatively heavy, sticky and
protein-rich, for dispersal by
insect pollinators attracted to their
flowers. Many insects and some
mites are specialized to feed on pollen, and are called
palynivores.
In non-flowering seed plants, pollen germinates in the
pollen chamber, located beneath and inside the
micropyle. A
pollen tube is produced, which grows into the
nucellus to provide nutrients for the developing sperm cells. Sperm cells of
Pinophyta and
Gnetophyta are without
flagella, and are carried by the pollen tube, while those of
Cycadophyta and
Ginkgophyta have many flagella.
When placed on the
stigma of a flowering plant, under favorable circumstances, a pollen grain puts forth a
pollen tube which grows down the tissue of the style to the ovary, and makes its way along the
placenta, guided by projections or hairs, to the micropyle of an
ovule. The nucleus of the tube cell has meanwhile passed into the tube, as does also the generative nucleus which divides (if it hasn't already) to form two
sperm cells. The sperm cells are carried to their destination in the tip of the pollen-tube.
Allergy to pollen is called
hay fever. Generally pollens that cause allergies are those of anemophilous, because the lightweight pollen grains are produced in great quantities for wind dispersal. Breathing air containing these pollen grains brings them into contact with the nasal passages.
In the US, people often falsely blame the conspicuous
entomophilous goldenrod flower for allergies. Since this pollen does not become airborne, the only way to get goldenrod pollen on the nasal passages would be to stick the flower up one's nose. The late summer and fall pollen allergies are usually caused by
ragweed, a widespread anemophilous plant. Arizona was once regarded as a haven for people with pollen allergies, since few ragweed species grow in the desert. However, as suburbs grew and people began establishing irrigated lawns and gardens, ragweed gained a foothold and Arizona lost its claim of freedom from hay fever.
Anemophilous spring blooming plants such as
oak,
birch,
hickory,
pecan, and early summer
grasses may also induce pollen allergies. Cultivated flowers are most often entomophilous and do not cause allergies.
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Pollen count*
Polyphenol antioxidant |
Clumps of yellow pollen on a flower head. |
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Pollen and Spore Identification Literature*
Paleobotany and Palynology at the Florida Museum of Natural History*
Palynology at the University of Arizona*
Palynology at French Institute of Pondicherry*
Palynology at the University of Sheffield*
Palynology in Utrecht, the Netherlands*
Bee Pollen, Royal Jelly, and Propolis - A sceptical view of the benefits of taking bee pollen from quackwatch.org.
*
Pollen - Menace or Miracle?, discussion on its purpose in biology and as an allergen
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