Pseudoprime

A pseudoprime is a probable prime (an integer which shares a property common to all prime numbers) which is not actually prime. Pseudoprimes can be classified according to which property they satisfy.

The most important class of pseudoprimes come from Fermat's little theorem and hence are called Fermat pseudoprimes. This theorem states that if p is prime and a is coprime to p, then a^p-1 - 1 is divisible by p. If a number x is not prime, a is coprime to x and x divides a^x-1 - 1, then x is called a pseudoprime to base a. A number x that is a pseudoprime for all values of a that are coprime to x is called a Carmichael number.

The smallest Fermat pseudoprime for the base 2 is 341. It is not a prime, since it equals 11 · 31, but it satisfies Fermat's little theorem: 2³⁴¹=2 (mod 341).

The rarity of such pseudoprimes has important practical implications. For example, public-key cryptography algorithms such as RSA require the ability to quickly find large primes. The usual algorithm to generate prime numbers is to generate random odd numbers and test them for primality. However, deterministic primality tests are slow. If the user is willing to tolerate a very small chance that the number found is not a prime number but a pseudoprime, it is possible to use the much faster and simpler Fermat primality test.

Another approach is to use more refined notions of pseudoprimality, e.g. strong pseudoprimes or Euler-Jacobi pseudoprimes, for which there are no analogues of Carmichael numbers. This leads to probabilistic algorithms such as the Solovay-Strassen primality test and the Miller-Rabin primality test, which produce what are known as industrial-grade primes. Industrial-grade primes are integers for which primality has not been "certified" (i.e. rigorously proven), but have undergone a test such as the Miller-Rabin test which has positive, but impossibly low, probability of failure.

There are infinitely many pseudoprimes to a given base (in fact, infinitely many Carmichael numbers), but they are rather rare. There are only 3 pseudo-primes to base 2 below 1000, and below a million there are only 245. Pseudoprimes to base 2 are called Poulet numbers or sometimes Sarrus numbers or Fermatians . The Poulet numbers and Carmichael numbers (in bold) up to 41041 are:

n		n		n		n		n
1	341 = 11 · 31	11	2821 = 7 · 13 · 31	21	8481 = 3 · 11 · 257	31	15709 = 23 · 683	41	30121 = 7 · 13 · 331
2	561 = 3 · 11 · 17	12	3277 = 29 · 112	22	8911 = 7 · 19 · 67	32	15841 = 7 · 31 · 73	42	30889 = 17 · 23 · 79
3	645 = 3 · 5 · 43	13	4033 = 37 · 109	23	10261 = 31 · 331	33	16705 = 5 · 13 · 257	43	31417 = 89 · 353
4	1105 = 5 · 13 · 17	14	4369 = 17 · 257	24	10585 = 5 · 29 · 73	34	18705 = 3 · 5 · 29 · 43	44	31609 = 73 · 433
5	1387 = 19 · 73	15	4371 = 3 · 31 · 47	25	11305 = 5 · 7 · 17 · 19	35	18721 = 97 · 193	45	31621 = 103 · 307
6	1729 = 7 · 13 · 19	16	4681 = 31 · 151	26	12801 = 3 · 17 · 251	36	19951 = 71 · 281	46	33153 = 3 · 43 · 257
7	1905 = 3 · 5 · 127	17	5461 = 43 · 127	27	13741 = 7 · 13 · 151	37	23001 = 3 · 11 · 17 · 41	47	34945 = 5 · 29 · 241
8	2047 = 23 · 89	18	6601 = 7 · 23 · 41	28	13747 = 59 · 233	38	23377 = 97 · 241	48	35333 = 89 · 397
9	2465 = 5 · 17 · 29	19	7957 = 73 · 109	29	13981 = 11 · 31 · 41	39	25761 = 3 · 31 · 277	49	39865 = 5 · 7 · 17 · 67
10	2701 = 37 · 73	20	8321 = 53 · 157	30	14491 = 43 · 337	40	29341 = 13 · 37 · 61	50	41041 = 7 · 11 · 13 · 41

A Poulet number all of whose divisors d divide 2^d - 2 is calledsuper-Poulet number. There are an infinitely many Poulet numbers which are not super-Poulet Numbers.

The first smallest pseudoprimes for bases a ≤ 200 are given in the following table; the colors mark the number of prime factors.

a	smallest p-p	a	smallest p-p	a	smallest p-p	a	smallest p-p
		51	65 = 5 · 13	101	175 = 5² · 7	151	175 = 5² · 7
2	341 = 11 · 13	52	85 = 5 · 17	102	133 = 7 · 19	152	153 = 3² · 17
3	91 = 7 · 13	53	65 = 5 · 13	103	133 = 7 · 19	153	209 = 11 · 19
4	15 = 3 · 5	54	55 = 5 · 11	104	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	154	155 = 5 · 31
5	124 = 2² · 31	55	63 = 3² · 7	105	451 = 11 · 41	155	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
6	35 = 5 · 7	56	57 = 3 · 19	106	133 = 7 · 19	156	217 = 7 · 31
7	25 = 5²	57	65 = 5 · 13	107	133 = 7 · 19	157	186 = 2 · 3 · 31
8	9 = 3²	58	133 = 7 · 19	108	341 = 11 · 31	158	159 = 3 · 53
9	28 = 2² · 7	59	87 = 3 · 29	109	117 = 3² · 13	159	247 = 13 · 19
10	33 = 3 · 11	60	341 = 11 · 31	110	111 = 3 · 37	160	161 = 7 · 23
11	15 = 3 · 5	61	91 = 7 · 13	111	190 = 2 · 5 · 19	161	190=2 · 5 · 19
12	65 = 5 · 13	62	63 = 3² · 7	112	121 = 11²	162	481 = 13 · 37
13	21 = 3 · 7	63	341 = 11 · 31	113	133 = 7 · 19	163	186 = 2 · 3 · 31
14	15 = 3 · 5	64	65 = 5 · 13	114	115 = 5 · 23	164	165 = 3 · 5 · 11
15	341 = 11 · 13	65	112 = 24 · 7	115	133 = 7 · 19	165	172 = 2² · 43
16	51 = 3 · 17	66	91 = 7 · 13	116	117 = 3² · 13	166	301 = 7 · 43
17	45 = 3² · 5	67	85 = 5 · 17	117	145 = 5 · 29	167	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
18	25 = 5²	68	69 = 3 · 23	118	119 = 7 · 17	168	169 = 13²
19	45 = 3² · 5	69	85 = 5 · 17	119	177 = 3 · 59	169	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
20	21 = 3 · 7	70	169 = 13²	120	121 = 11²	170	171 = 3² · 19
21	55 = 5 · 11	71	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	121	133 = 7 · 19	171	215 = 5 · 43
22	69 = 3 · 23	72	85 = 5 · 17	122	123 = 3 · 41	172	247 = 13 · 19
23	33 = 3 · 11	73	111 = 3 · 37	123	217 = 7 · 31	173	205 = 5 · 41
24	25 = 5²	74	75 = 3 · 5²	124	125 = 3³	174	175 = 5² · 7
25	28 = 2² · 7	75	91 = 7 · 13	125	133 = 7 · 19	175	319 = 11 · 19
26	27 = 3³	76	77 = 7 · 11	126	247 = 13 · 19	176	177 = 3 · 59
27	65 = 5 · 13	77	247 = 13 · 19	127	153 = 3² · 17	177	196 = 2² · 7²
28	45 = 3² · 5	78	341 = 11 · 31	128	129 = 3 · 43	178	247 = 13 · 19
29	35 = 5 · 7	79	91 = 7 · 13	129	217 = 7 · 31	179	185 = 5 · 37
30	49 = 7²	80	81 = 34	130	217 = 7 · 31	180	217 = 7 · 31
31	49 = 7²	81 = 34	85 = 5 · 17	131	143 = 11 · 13	181	195 = 3 · 5 · 13
32	33 = 3 · 11	82	91 = 7 · 13	132	133 = 7 · 19	182	183 = 3 · 61
33	85 = 5 · 17	83	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	133	145 = 5 · 29	183	221 = 13 · 17
34	35 = 5 · 7	84	85 = 5 · 17	134	135 = 3³ · 5	184	185 = 5 · 37
35	51 = 3 · 17	85	129 = 3 · 43	135	221 = 13 · 17	185	217 = 7 · 31
36	91 = 7 · 13	86	87 = 3 · 29	136	265 = 5 · 53	186	187 = 11 · 17
37	45 = 3² · 5	87	91 = 7 · 13	137	148 = 2² · 37	187	217 = 7 · 31
38	39 = 3 · 13	88	91 = 7 · 13	138	259 = 7 · 37	188	189 = 3³ · 7
39	95 = 5 · 19	89	99 = 3² · 11	139	161 = 7 · 23	189	235 = 5 · 47
40	91 = 7 · 13	90	91 = 7 · 13	140	141 = 3 · 47	190	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
41	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	91	115 = 5 · 23	141	355 = 5 · 71	191	217 = 7 · 31
42	205 = 5 · 41	92	93 = 3 · 31	142	143 = 11 · 13	192	217 = 7 · 31
43	77 = 7 · 11	93	301 = 7 · 43	143	213 = 3 · 71	193	276 = 2² · 3 · 23
44	45 = 3² · 5	94	95 = 5 · 19	144	145 = 5 · 29	194	195 = 3 · 5 · 13
45	76 = 2² · 19	95	141 = 3 · 47	145	153 = 3² · 17	195	259 = 7 · 37
46	133 = 7 · 19	96	133 = 7 · 19	146	147 = 3 · 7²	196	205 = 5 · 41
47	65 = 5 · 13	97	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	147	169 = 13²	197	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
48	49 = 7²	98	99 = 3² · 11	148	231 = 3 · 7 · 11	198	247 = 13 · 19
49	66 = 2 · 3 · 11	99	145 = 5 · 29	149	175 = 5² · 7	199	225 = 3² · 5²
50	51 = 3 · 17	100	153 = 3² · 17	150	169 = 13²	200	201 = 3 · 67

See also

*Euler pseudoprime
** base-2 Euler pseudoprimes (sequence A006970 in OEIS)
*Euler-Jacobi pseudoprime
** base-2 Euler-Jacobi pseudoprimes (sequence A047713 in OEIS)
** base-3 Euler-Jacobi pseudoprimes (sequence A048950 in OEIS)
*Extra strong Lucas pseudoprime
*Fibonacci pseudoprime
*Lucas pseudoprime
*Perrin pseudoprime
*Somer-Lucas pseudoprime
*Strong Frobenius pseudoprime
*Strong Lucas pseudoprime
*Strong pseudoprime
** base-2 strong pseudoprimes (sequence A001262 in OEIS)

External link

*Pseudoprimes up to 15,999