Tibeto-Burman languages
The
Tibeto-Burman group of languages (often considered a sub-group of the
Sino-Tibetan language family) is spoken in various central and south Asian countries, including
Myanmar, northern
Thailand, southern
China (
Tibet Autonomous Region,
Qinghai,
Gansu,
Yunnan,
Guizhou,
Sichuan,
Hunan),
Nepal,
Bhutan,
India (
Himachal Pradesh,
Uttaranchal,
Sikkim,
Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam,
Nagaland,
Manipur,
Mizoram,
Tripura, the
Ladakh region of
Jammu and Kashmir), and western
Pakistan.
The subfamily includes approximately 350 languages;
Burmese has the most speakers (approximately 32 million). Approximately six million
Tibetans speak one of several related languages.
Some linguists (including Shafer 1966 and
George van Driem) advocate elevating "Tibeto-Burman" to displace "Sino-Tibetan" as the top-tier language family, with the
Chinese languages (Sinitic) classified as a branch of the Tibeto-Burman/Sino-Tibetan family.
[Van Driem, George "Tibeto-Burman Phylogeny and Prehistory: Languages, Material Culture and Genes". Bellwood, Peter & Renfrew, Colin (eds) Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis (2003), Ch 19.]There have been two major classifications: Shafer (1966) and Benedict (1972). Since then, many languages previously inadequately documented have received more attention with the publication of new grammars, dictionaries, and wordlists. This new research has greatly benefited comparative work. Bradley (1997) is a newer classification that incorporates the newer data.
Bradley (1997)
I.
Bodic (a.k.a. Western): A. Bodish:: i. Central Bodish (a.k.a. Tibetan)::: a. Western Tibetan::: b. Central Tibetan:::: i) Western:::: ii) mNgaẖris:::: iii) gTsang:::: iv) dBus (a.k.a. 'Central' Central Tibetan):::: v) Southern Tibetan::: c. Amdo Tibetan (a.k.a. Northeastern Tibetan)::: d. Khams Tibetan (a.k.a. Southeastern Tibetan):: ii. West Bodish (a.k.a. Gurung, Tamang):: iii. East Bodish (a.k.a. Bumthang):: iv. Tshangla (a.k.a. East Bodic):: v. West Himalayish (a.k.a. Kanauri): B. Himalayan:: i. Central:: ii. Kiranti
II.
North-East India (a.k.a. Sal): A. Bodo-Garo:: i. Northern Naga: B. Jinghpaw: C. Luish (a.k.a. Sak): D. Pyu
III.
Kuki-Chin: A. Southern Naga: B. Kuki: C. Chin: D. Arleng
IV.
Central: A. Lepcha: B. Western Arunachal: C. Adi-Mising- Nishi (a.k.a. Abor-Miri-Dafla, Tani): D. Digarish 'Mishmi': E. Keman 'Mishmi': F. Rawang (a.k.a. Nungish)
V.
North-EasternVI.
South-Eastern: A. Burmese-Lolo (a.k.a. Burmic):: i. Mru:: ii. Gong:: iii. Burmish:: iv. Loloish::: a. Northern::: b. Central::: c. Southern: B. Karen
Benedict (1972)
A very influential classification (although tentative) is that of Benedict (1972). This was a collaborated effort of Paul Benedict and Robert Shafer (completed around 1942-1943) with editing by
James Matisoff. This classification puts Tibeto-Burman under a larger Sino-Tibetan phylum:
Sino-Tibetan:# Chinese:# Tibeto-Karen:#* Karen:#*
Tibeto-BurmanThe Tibeto-Burman sub-family is then composed of 7 main branches:
I.
Tibetan-Kanauri (a.k.a. Bodish-Himalayish): A. Bodish (in eastern & southern
Tibet): B. Himalayish:: i. "major" Himalayish (in western Tibet, western
India):: ii. "minor" Himalayish (in
Uttaranchal):: iii.
Dzorgai (in
Sichuan)
?:: iv.
Lepcha (in
Sikkim)
?:: v.
Magari (in
Nepal)
?II.
Bahing-Vayu (a.k.a. Kiranti) (in Nepal): A. Bahing: B. Khambu: C. Vayu-Chepang: D.
Nepal Bhasa ?III.
Abor-Miri-Dafla (a.k.a. Mirish, North Assam) (in Sikkim, northern
Assam)
IV.
Kachin (in northern
Myanmar)
V.
Burmese-Lolo (a.k.a. Burmish) (in Sichuan,
Yunnan, Myanmar,
Thailand,
Laos,
Vietnam): A. Burmese-Maru: B. Southern Lolo: C. Northern Lolo: D.
Kanburi Lawa in Thailand: E.
Moso (a.k.a. Nakhi) (in western Yunnan): F. Hsi-fan (in western Sichuan): G.
Tangut (in northwestern
China): H.
Nung ?VI.
Bodo-Garo (a.k.a. Barish) {in northern Assam, northern Myanmar): A. Bodo: B. Garo:: i. Garo A:: ii. Garo B: C. "Naked Naga" (a.k.a. Konyak)
?: D.
Chairel ?VII.
Kuki-Naga (a.k.a. Kukish) (in southern Assam-Myanmar area): A. Central Kuki: B. Northern Kuki: C. Old Kuki: D. Southern Kuki: E. Northern Naga: F. Southern Naga
In this classification,
*
Bodish includes
Tibetan,
Gyarung,
Takpa,
Tsangla,
Murmi, and
Gurung;
*
major Himalayish includes
Kanauri,
Chitkhuli,
Thebor,
Kanashi,
Rangloi,
Bunan,
Manchati,
Chamba Lahuli, and
Zhang-zhung;
*
minor Himalayish includes
Rangkas,
Darmiya,
Chaudangsi, and
Byangsi.
Dzorgai,
Lepcha, and
Magari seem to be most similar to the Tibetan-Kanauri branch. Lepcha may be a separate transitional branch like Kachin. Margari is also similar to Bahing-Vayu.
*
Bahing includes
Sunwari,
Dumi,
Khaling, and
Rai.
*
Khambu includes
Sangpang,
Nachereng,
Rodong,
Waling,
Rungchengbung,
Lambichong,
Chingtang,
Limbu, and
Yakha.
Nepal Bhasa (Newari) shares similarities to both Bahing and Khambu.
Aka (a.k.a. Hrusso) may belong to Abor-Miri-Dafla.
Digaro,
Miju, and
Dhimal may also be Abor-Miri-Dafla, but this even more uncertain.
Kachin seems to be a transitional branch containing features similar to all other branches.
Kadu-Andro-Sengmai (a.k.a. Luish) and
Taman may belong to Kachin.
*
Burmese-Maru includes
Phön,
Lashi,
Atsi, and
Achang.
*
Southern Lolo includes
Phunoi,
Akha,
Lahu,
Black Lolo,
White Lolo, and
Müng.
*
Northern Lolo includes
Lisu,
Ahi,
Nyi,
Lolopho,
Chöko,
Phupha,
Ulu, and
Independent Lolo.
*
Hsi-fan includes
Manyak,
Horpa,
Menia, and
Muli.
Nung may belong to Burmese-Lolo, but it also has similarities to Kachin.
Pyu is similar to Nung.
*
Bodo includes
Dimasa.
*
Naked Naga includes
Banpara,
Tableng,
Namsang,
Tamlu,
Moshang, and
Chang. Eastern languages of Naked Naga, although similar to Bodo-Garo, have similarities with Kachin.
Deori Chutiya (northern Assam) belongs to Bodo-Garo, although to which sub-group is uncertain.
Shafer (1966-1974)
Unlike Benedict (1972), Shafer's tentative classification does not separate Sino-Tibetan into two branches:
Chinese and
Tibeto-Burman. Rather, Chinese (Sinitic) is placed on the same level as Benedict's subgroupings of Tibeto-Burman.
Sino-Tibetan:
I.
SiniticII.
DaicIII.
BodicIV.
BurmicV.
BaricVI.
KarenicEthnologue
I.
BaiII.
Himalayish: A. Mahakiranti:: i. Kham-Magar-Chepang-Sunwari::: a. Chepang::: b. Kham::: c. Magar::: d. Sunwari:: ii. Kiranti::: a. Tomyang::: b. Eastern::: c. Western:: iii. Newari: B. Tibeto-Kanauri:: i. Dzalakha:: ii. Lepcha:: iii. Western Himalayish:: iv. Tibetic::: a.
Tshangla::: b. Dhimal::: c. Tamangic::: d.
Tibetan: C. Baima
(unclassified)III.
Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo: A. Jingpho-Luish: B. Konyak-Bodo-Garo
IV.
Karen: A. Pa'o: B. Zayein: C. Pwo: D. Sgaw-Bghai:: i. Bghai:: ii. Brek:: iii. Kayah:: iv. Sgaw: E. Zayein Karen
(unclassified)V.
Kuki-Chin-Naga: A. Kuki-Chin:: i. Central:: ii. Northern:: iii. Southern: B. Naga:: i. Angami-Pochuri:: ii.
Ao:: iii. Tangkhul:: iv. unclassified Naga:: v. Zeme
VI.
Lolo-Burmese: A. Burmish:: i. Northern:: ii. Southern:: iii. unclassified Burmish: B. Loloish:: i. Northern ::: a. Lisu::: b. Samei::: c.
Yi:: i. Southern:: ii. unclassified Loloish: C. Naxi: D. Phula
(unclassified)VII.
MeitheiVIII.
MikirIX.
North Assam: A. Deng: B. Tani
X.
NungishXI.
Tangut-Qiang: A. Qiangic: B. rGyarong
XII.
TujiaXII.
unclassified Tibeto-BurmanXIV.
West BodishXV.
Mru* Benedict, Paul K. (1972).
Sino-Tibetan: A conspectus. J. A. Matisoff (Ed.). Cambridge: The University Press. ISBN 0-521-08175-0.
* Bradley, David. (1997). Tibeto-Burman languages and classification. In D. Bradley (Ed.),
Papers in South East Asian linguistics: Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas (No. 14, pp. 1-71). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
* Shafer, Robert. (1966).
Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 1). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
* Shafer, Robert. (1967).
Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 2). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
* Shafer, Robert. (1968).
Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 3). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
* Shafer, Robert. (1970).
Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 4). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
* Shafer, Robert. (1974).
Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 5). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
*
List of Tibeto-Burman languages
