Treaty of Shimoda
The
Treaty of Shimoda of
1855 was signed between the
RussianVice-Admiral Euphimy Vasil'evich Putiatin and
Toshiakira Kawaji of
Japan in the city of
Shimoda, Shizuoka, Japan, on
February 7th,
1855. Itmarked the start of official relations between Russia and Japan.
In the first half of the 19th century Japan was a secretive island,isolated from the world with its self-imposed
Sakoku (鎖国
'country in chains'). This Japanese term for theperiod of isolation didn't allow any trade with foreign countries, withthe two exceptions of
China and
Holland. Trade with these two tradenations was strongly restricted. Holland was only allowed to trade fromthe artificial island of
Deshima in the port of
Nagasaki. EnteringJapan itself was strictly prohibited.Halfway the 19th century many colonial powers found themselves in aneconomic malaise and needed new markets to trade their over-producedgoods with. The colonial powers quickly realised the potential of theAsian market, and with it Japan. Japan had an economic importance sinceit was situated as a gateway to the
Pacific Ocean. It also had somestrong military advantages. In the 19th century the colonial powerswere fiercly trying to gain as much ground in
Asia as they could. Thecolonial powers being, the
USA,
Great-Britain,
France,
Holland, and
Imperial Russia.Being natural neighbours, Japan and Russia had early interactionsbefore the treaty. There have always been quarrels concerningfishinggrounds and territorial claims. Various documents speak of thecapture of Japanese fishermen as far away as the
Kamchatka Peninsula(полуо́стров Камча́тка). Some of these Japanese captives were takenover the Siberian route to
Saint Petersburg. There they were used inthe education of the Japanese language and culture. A practise also notunknown to Japan itself, which used Russian captives in a same way. Itillustrated a growing curiousity of the two countries.
*Early in the 18th century Japan was warned of a possible Russian expansion into the
Far East. A Slovakian adventurer, named
Baron Móric Beňovský, was banned by the Russian
Tsar to the Kamchatka Peninsula. However, the man was able to escape the desolate place and eventually showed up in a Japanese harbor on the sub-tropical island of
Amami Oshima. He alerted the Dutch on the island of Deshima (出島) of the Russian treath to the Far East. The Dutch immeditaly send his warnings to the
Shogun and his advisors (bakufu 幕府). The
Bakufu immediatly formed a response by appointing intellectuals like
Hayashi Shihei (林子平) to take appropiate defensive measures. The story of Baron Móric Beňovský is a fantastic and exotic one. His interactions with the Japanese and his rescue of the inhabitants of
Formosa out of the hands of the Chinese shouldn't be taken all too serious. Many of the sources appeared to be false or quite simply impossible. But he did in fact alert the Bakufu on the approaching Russians.
* A second Russian-Japanese interaction took place in
1792. A Russian naval officer named
Adam Laxman arrived in
Hokkaido (北海"). First in the town of
Matsumae (松前") and later
Hakodate (函館市, -shi) he would attempt a first Russian trade agreement with Japan in order to break the Dutch exclusive traderights. The Russian delegation didn't succeed due to the Japanese determination. Japan was enclosed in its Sakoku, isolating the country from any foreign contacts, except for Holland and China. The Japanese suggested Laxman to leave. But Laxman had one demand: he would only leave with a trade-agreement for Russia. After a long time and annoyed by the stubborn Laksman, the Japanese finally handed over a document stipulating Russia's right to send one Russian vessel of commerce to the harbor of Nagasaki (長崎市, -shi). Secondly it also restricted the Russian commerce to Nagasaki. Trade elsewhere in Japan was prohibited. A final note in the document clearly said it was not allowed to practise
Christianity inside Japan. Laxman returned to Russia. Eventually, the Russian send their vessel of commerce to Nagasaki, but the harbor didn't allow the Russians entrance. The document was of no value. Should Nagasaki have decided to open its harbor to the Russians, Russia would have been the first Western country to break the trade monopoly of the Dutch. Angrily, the Russians returned back to the mainland, not without consequense. Sources speak of at least two Russian officers who burned down Japanese fishervillages and fishingboats on the islands of
Etorofu (Japanese: 択捉島, Russian: iturup Итуруп) and
Sakhalin (Japanese: Karafuto 樺太). These events introduced the Russian-Japanese dispute concerning the
Kuril Islands. To the present day, this dispute remains.
*The race to be the first to have the prestigious honour of opening Japan to the world, still was a Russian dream. Tsar
Alexander I of Russia had started a worldwide Russian representation mission under the lead of
Ivan Fedorovich Krusenstern (Иван Федорович Крузенштерн). With Japan in mind,
Nikolai Oetrovich Rezanov (Николай Петрович Резанов) was appointed as a member of the mission. He was the founder of Russian-Siberian trade in fur and was the ideal man to convince the Japanese. In
1804 Rezanov got his chance to exercise his diplomatic strength in Japan. On board of the ship
Nadejda he had many gifts for the Bakufu. He even brought along Japanese fishermen who had stranded in Russia. But also Rezanov couldn't do what so many had tried before him. An agreement was never reached. During the negotiations the Shogun remained silent for months, next the Shogun refused any negotiations and finally gafe the Russian gifts back. Now Russia acted more aggressively. As an act of revenge, Russia attacked the northern shores of Japan. The Russian colonel
Golownin was taken prisoner in one of these attacks in
1811. He was seized by
samurai (侍) on the isle of Hokkaido. The following 18 months he was a prisoner of the
Tokugawa Shogun and was a mean to learn more about Russian language, culture and the state of the European powerstruggle and Western science. Through Golownin (and the Dutch) Japan could update its knowledge nations and worldview. Golownins memoires (
Memoirs of Captivity in Japan During the Years 1811,1812, and 1813) illustrate some of the methods used by Tokugawa officials.
*Later on, these unsuccesful attacks would be disavowed by Russia and its interest into Japan would drop for a complete generation. This would be the case untill the
Opium Wars in
1834. The Russian Tsar
Nicholas I of Russia realised the territorial expansion of
Great Britain in Asia and the expansion of the USA in the Pacific Ocean and Northern America. As a result he founded a comittee in
1842 to investigate Russias power in area's around the
Amur and in Sakhalin. The comittee proposed a mission to the area under the lead of Putiatin. The plan wasn't approved because officials didn't believe Russia had a great commercial asset to be defended in these cold and desolate places. Nonetheless, a small expedition was set up with destination the Amur region. A small plan, but a step closer to a bigger plan. Japan itself didn't remain untouched by the events in Asia. The highly esteemed China was surprisingly (in the eyes of the Japanese) beaten by England in the Opium Wars. An event opening the eyes of Japan regarding the military strength of the Western powers. In light of these events, Japan gradually modernised its army.
Artillery fortresses, artillery schools and a revision of the coastal defense are some examples. This modernisation was supported by the Bakufu, intellectual groups and even the Japanese
emperor himself strongly supported a revision of the defences. Although Japan was in an airtight isolation from the outside world, it refused to be blind to Western capabilities and dangers.
*
|
Matthew Calbraith Perry (1794-1858). |
A few years later, Russia learned that the USA was preparing an expedition to Japan. This expedition under the lead of
Commodore Matthew Perry would provide more American influence in the Pacific region and Asia. Russia immediately reactivated its former plans to send a mission to the Far East. As was intended before, Putiatin was reassigned as lead to the Russian mission. He left
Europe with his squadron early in the year
1853. The order was to return with a treaty only equal or superior to what the Americans would achieve. Also high on the agenda was a clear statement of the Japanese on what was Russian and what was Japanese in the Kuril Islands and on Sakhalin. Putiatin was accompagnied by famous Russian writer
Ivan Aleksandrovich Goncharov, who served as his secretary. Goncharov was the autor of "
Fregat Pallada" (
1858) in which he described the details of the voyage and the negotiations. A valuable description on how the Japanese received and processed foreign trade vessels and the Russian view on this.
*Putiatin, having left in a haste, saw his personal rival Perry reaching Japan before he himself would. Therefor, in the light of Perry's arrival, he proposed a partnership to Perry. The American Commodore rejected the Russian proposal. On the 8th of July in the year 1853 Perry appeared in the
Tokyo Bay. The Japanese government reacted shocked and throughout the city of
Edo there was a heavy commotion. At this very moment, Putiatin was well on his way to Nagasaki and was already between
Hong Kong and the
Bonin Islands. He careffully awaited the events to unfold and observed from a distance. Eventually, Putiatin landed in Japan on
August 21,
1853. On this very day Putiatin arrived in the harbor of Nagasaki with his squadron, comprised of the mothership
Pallada and 4 other vessels. He arrived in Japan only a few weeks apart of the departure of Perry's 4 American war vessels.
The appearance of the
Kurobune (black ships) of Perry in the Tokyo Bay would be the start of a new era in the history of Japan. Note that Putiatin's arrival and his own war vessels on the other side of Japan and around the same time certainly contributed to the foreign pressure on Japan and its Sakoku. However, Perry and Putiatin were offered a clear "no". Records on how Putiatin and Japanese officials negotiated are rare and vague. Perry's negotiations were recorded and for obvious historic reasons well preserved. Perry's negotiations are analog with those of Putiatin and thus serve as a good comparable example. Futhermore, the results of Perry's mission would benefit all future foreign delegations in securing treaty's, including those of the Russians. In his visit, Perry handed over the demands of American
president Fillmore to the Bakufu, with great discontent of Shogun
Tokugawa Ieyoshi (徳川家慶). Four days after the departure of Commodore Perry out of the Tokyo Bay, the Shogun passed away due to a sudden illness. The political scene in Japan now was an empty one. The
Roju ("Elder")
Abe Masahiro, who in fact had all the political power within the Bakafu, surprisingly councelled the
daimyo's, aristocrats and even the Imperial Court. This was not done, especially because the Bakufu never allowed any interference into its governing activities. It was experienced as a sign of incompetence and would be the beginning of the end for the mighty Bakufu who had reigned for hundreds of years. The aristocrats, daimyo's and emperor gave a negative advice: to reject the demands of the Americans and to withstand any foreign interference. And so this was also the case for the Russian proposals. Putiatin and Perry had a somewhat differing approach to negotiating with the Japanese. Perry stressed the power of the American marines and possible consequenses for Japan. Perry threatened the Japanese that if the Bakufu would give a negative answer, the 100 Kurobunes already on their way to Japan, would force an opening of Japan. Putiatin choose a more diplomatic and strategic approach in the hopes of undermining the American efforts. Russia offered protection against the Americans in case of an American attack. There was only one condition, a agreement on trade. Putiatin stayed for 3 months in Japan, opposed to the short stay of Perry. Perry had left as quickly as he had come. Putiatin left Japan in november 1853 and sailed for
Shanghai with the same promise as the Americans. Namely, that he would return coming spring to receive the answer of the Bakufu.
*He kept his word and returned in January
1854 and continued his negotiations. On the end of February he sailed to
Okinawa (沖縄) and finally to
Siberia where he had to change flagships: from the
Pallada to the
Diana. The Russian delegation was back in Japan in late 1854, much later than the Americans. The Americans had succeeded in opening Japan with the
Treaty of Kanagawa in early 1854. Furthermore, in the year of 1854 the French and British were doing a manhunt in the
Sea of Ochotsk and the
Japanese Sea for Putiatin and his squadron in order to destroy it. To prevent a Russian treaty and Russian influence deep in Asia, the British approached the Bakufu to ask for Japanese neutrality should the British attack the Russians. Because of a bad translation the British obtained an unintended
English-Japanese Treaty of Friendship (日英'親条約) in 1854. The French and British would never find Putiatin.
*Although Putiatin was the smarter one, a
tsunami would be able to find him. On the 23th of December 1854 the big
Ansei Tokai Earthquake would shake Japan and surroundings. It had an estimated magnitude of 8.4
Richter. A 7 metres high wall of water destroyed 900 homes in Shimoda and even more along the Pacific coastline of Japan. Also Putiatins ships, carefully hidden and docked in Shimoda were destroyed. The Russian delegation now found itself stranded in Japan. During the tsunami, before the ships were destroyed, the Russian vice-admiral Putiatin ordered his forces to rescue Japanese out of the water. However, the flagship Diana was heavely damaged and would eventually sink. In an attempt to study the Russian way of building vessels, the Tokugawa ordered Japanese carpenters to build a new ship helped by the Russians. And so Putiatin was able to sail back to Russia on
May 8 1855 on board of the Russian-Japanese vessel, baptised
Heda. The significance of this event is found in the fact that for the very first time in Japan's history a long term project was established with a Western nation comprising Russians and Japanese under a same cause. Extraordinary in a time of Sakoku which obviously was coming to an end.
One tsunami and 3 days after the destruction of Putiatin's fleet, the Japanese and Russians continued with their negotiations. Reason for Russia's determination for a treaty was the idea that it needed Japan to further develop Siberia. Russia had expanded its empire from
Eurasia over Siberia and
Alaska all the way into northern
California on the American continent. In order to stimulate development of these far away territories it desperately needed an ideally situated country like Japan for local trade. Another, almost timeless, reason was the USA. Russia wouldn't allow itself to lose any power to the Americans, who had obtained a treaty of friendship with Japan in early 1854 thanks to Commodore Perry. The Japanese found Putiatin to be a civilised and rightious man. A remarque of Putiatin to his Japanese collegue
Tsutsui:
"If we would compare our age, you have the wise age of my father for I only have the age of your son. I offer my hand so I can serve my father and this way will not lose the way of trust."
On the 7th of February 1855 the long awaited Russian-Japanese treaty of friendship was signed by Putiatin as Russian Emperial Ambassador and Japanese representative Controller
Toshiakira Kawaji. The treaty was based on mutual trust and understanding and would be the start of relations between the two countries. The treaty comprised a trade agreement which opened 3 Japanese harbors to Russia, one more than the Americans did. Article V stipulated that trade would be performed through the harbors of Hakodate, Nagasaki and Shimoda. These harbors would provide goods (wood, water, ...) and reparations. Also worth mentioning is Article VI, allowing Russia to appoint consuls in Hakodate and Shimoda. Futhermore, the treaty also partially defined the northern borders of Japan. A great burden in Russian-Japanese relations concerning the
Northern Territories.
*The Russian Japanese border on the Kuril Islands was drawn between Etorofu and
Uruppu. Everything north of this line was Russian and everything south Japanese (Etorofu,
Kunashiri,
Shikotan and
Habomai).
*Both parties also agreed to consider Sakhalin subject to Russian and Japanese influence. Russia would therefor destroy its armybase in
Ootomari in the south of Sakhalin.Even though the treaty defined an agreement concerning the Northern Territories, it would remain a point of discussion to the present day.
*
History of Japan*
History of Russia*
Sources are found in the discussion.
*
Internetlinks:**
Massachusetts Institute of Technology interactive site on the history of Japan starting from Commodore Perry**
Portrets of modern Japanese historic figures on a site of the National Diet Library, Japan**
The Kuril Islands Dispute on the website of the Trade and Environment Database**
Article concerning Northern Territories Day in the Koizumi Cabinet E-Mail Magazine**
MOFA (Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) site dealing with the Northern Territories issue**
MOFA (Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) site dealing with the Northern Territories issue**
Subject dealing with the Southern Kuril Islands- Northern Territories Dispute by Andrew Andersen, Department of Political Science, University of Victoria**
Timeline of Sakhalin**
Russian article about Putiatin**
Luitenant James D. Johnston in chapter 16 of his book "China and Japan" on ""Golownin's Captivity in Japan and Release (1811-1813)"**
"Relations with Russia", Asahi Shimbun newsarticle**
Adam Laxman, English Wikipedia article**
German blogg on the Kuril Islands**
Open syllabus "Moderne geschiedenis van Japan" property of the Japanese Studies section, University of Louvain (KULeuven) **
History of the Northern Territories on the website of the prefectural government of Hokkaido aimed at argumenting the Japanese right in the Northern Territories
