Tuareg
The
Tuareg Arabic:طوارق (sometimes spelled
Touareg in French, or
Twareg in English) are a
Berber ethnic group or
nation.
Tuareg is a name that was applied to them by early explorers and historians (since
Leo Africanus), but they call themselves variously
Kel Tamasheq, Kel Tamajaq "Speakers of Tamasheq" and
Imouhar,
Imuhagh,
Imazaghan or
Imashaghen "the Free people". The meaning of the word
Twareg has been long discussed, since it does not seem
Berber. Probably it is
Twārəg, the "
broken plural" of
Tārgi, a
assānīya Arabic word whose former meaning was "inhabitant of
Targa" (the Tuareg name of the
Libyan region commonly known as
Fezzan;
targa in Berber means "(drainage) channel"). The Tuareg people also identify themselves with the concept
Tamust, "The Nation".
The Tuareg today are found mostly in
West Africa, but, like many in Northern Africa, were once
nomads throughout the
Sahara. They have a little-used but ancient script known as the
tifinaɤ; its origins may lie with the
Punic script.
Descended from Berbers in the region that is now
Libya, the Tuareg are descendants of ancient Saharan peoples described by
Herodotus, who mentions the ancient Libyan people, the
Garamantes. Archaeological testimony is the ruins of
Germa. Later, they expanded southward, into the
Sahel.
For over two millennia, the Tuareg operated the trans-Saharan caravan trade connecting the great cities on the southern edge of the Sahara via five desert trade routes to the northern (
Mediterranean) coast of Africa.
The Tuareg adopted
camel nomadism along with its distinctive form of social organization from camel-herding Arabs about two thousand years ago, when the camel was introduced to the Sahara from Saudi Arabia. Like numerous
African and other groups in pre-modern times, the Tuareg once took captives, either for trade or for domestic purposes; those who were not sold became assimilated into the Tuareg community. Captive servants and herdsmen formed a component of the division of labor in camel nomadism.
Traditionally, Tuareg society is hierarchal, with
nobility and vassals. The work of pastoralism was specialized according to social class:
imúšaɤ, warrior-aristocrats who organized group defense, livestock raids, and the long-distance caravan trade;
ímɤad, vassal-herdsmen who pastured and tended most of the confederation's livestock;
ìnhædˤæn, blacksmith-clients who fabricated and repaired the saddles, tools, household equipment and other material needs of the community. After the adoption of Islam, a separate class of religious clerics, the
marabout, also became integral to Tuareg social structure. Traditionally, the traders had a higher status than all but the nobility among their more settled compatriots to the south. With time, that difference has eroded, corresponding to the economic fortunes of the two groups.
Formerly - like most other Africans - the Tuareg also held
èklan "
slaves", often war prisoners darker than the generally brown-skinned Tuareg, who are also known as the
Bella.
In the early
nineteenth century, the Tuareg resisted the
French invasion of their Central Saharan homelands for the purpose of colonization. Tuareg broadswords were no match for the more advanced weapons of French squadrons, and after numerous massacres, the Tuareg were subdued and required to sign treaties in
Mali 1905 and
Niger 1917. In southern
Algeria, the French met some of the strongest resistance from the
Ahaggar Tuareg. Their
Amenokal, traditional chief
Moussa ag Amastan, fought numerous battles in defense of the region. Finally, Tuareg territories were taken under French governance and their confederations were largely dismantled and reorganized.
Before French colonization, the Tuareg were organized into loose confederations, each consisting of a dozen or so tribes. Each of the main groups had a traditional leader called
Amenokal along with an assembly of tribal chiefs (
imɤaran, singular
amɤar). The groups were the
Kel Ahaggar,
Kel Ajjer,
Kel Ayr,
Adrar n Fughas,
Iwəlləmədan and
Kel Gres.
Following the independence of African countries in 1960s, Tuareg territory was artificially divided into modern nations: Niger, Mali, Algeria, Libya, and
Burkina Faso.
 |
Areas where significant numbers of Tuaregs live |
Long-standing competition for resources in the Sahel has impacted Tuareg conflicts with neighboring African groups, especially after political disruption and economic constraints following French colonization, tight restrictions placed on nomadization, and
desertification exacerbated by global warming and the increased firewood needs of growing cities. Today, some Tuareg are experimenting with farming; some have been forced to abandon herding, and seek jobs in towns and cities.
In
Mali, a
Tuareg uprising resurfaced in the
Adrar N'Fughas mountains in the
1960s, following Mali's independence. In May
1990, in the aftermath of a clash between government soldiers and Tuareg outside a prison in
Tchin-Tabaraden, Niger, Tuaregs in both Mali and Niger claimed autonomy for their traditional homeland: (
Tenere, capital
Agadez, in Niger and the
Azawad and
Kidal regions of Mali). Deadly clashes between Tuareg freedom-fighters and the military of both countries followed, with deaths numbering well into the thousands. Negotiations initiated by France and
Algeria led to peace agreements (
January 11,
1992 in Mali and
1995 in Niger). Both agreements called for decentralization of national power and guaranteed the integration of Tuareg resistance fighters into the countries' respective national armies.
Major fighting between the Tuareg resistance and government security forces ended after the 1995 and 1996 agreements, but in
2004, sporadic fighting continued in Niger between government forces and groups struggling to obtain Tuareg independence.
The Tuareg people inhabit a large area covering almost all the middle and western
Sahara and the north-central
Sahel. In Tuareg terms, the Sahara is not one desert but many, so they call it
Tinariwen "the Deserts". Among the many deserts in north-west Africa there is the true desert
Tenere. Then we can cite numerous deserts more and less arid, flat and mountainous:
Adrar, Tagant, Tawat (Touat) Tanezruft, Adghagh n Fughas, Tamasna,
Azawagh, Adar, Damargu, Tagama, Manga, Ayr, Tarramit (Termit), Kawar, Jado, Tadmait, Admer, Igharghar,
Ahaggar,
Tassili N'Ajjer, Tadrart, Idhan, Tanghart,
Fezzan, Tibesti. Kalansho,
Libyan Desert & cet.
At the turn of the 19th century the Tuareg country was organized into confederations, each ruled by a supreme Chief (
Amenokal), along with a counsel of senior tribesmen elected to assist the chief.
*
Kel Ajjer or Azjar, center
Aghat (Ghat).
*
Kel Ahaggar, in
Ahaggar mountains
*
Kel Adagh, or
Kel Assuk, Kidal, and Tin Buktu
*
Iwillimmidan Kel Ataram, Manaka, and
Azawagh region
*
Iwillimmidan Kel Denneg, In Tibaraden, Abalagh, Teliya
Azawagh.
*
Kel Gres, Zinder and Tanut (Tanout).
*
Kel Ayr, Asode, Agadez, In Gal, Timia and Ifrwan.
The most famous Tuareg leader was a woman,
Tin Hinan, heroine and spiritual leader who founded a legendary kingdom in the Ahaggar mountains. Other confederation leaders followed under the title of
Amenokal (Chief); among the famous:
*
Karidanna, of the Iwillimmidan
*
Waisimudan, of Iwillimidan
*
Aljilani Ag Ibrahim, of Iwillimidan
*
Busari Ag Akhmad, of Iwillimidan
*
Musa Ag Amastan, of Kel Ahaggar
*
Ibrahim Ag Abakkada, of Kel Azjar
*
Amud, of Kel Azjar
*
Makhammad Ag Katami, of Iwillimmidan
*
Balkhu, of Kel Ayr
*
Wan Agoda, of Kel Faday (Kel Ayr)
*
Ahitaghal, of Kel Ahaggar
*
Akhanokhan, of Kel Azjar
*
Khadakhada, of Iwillimidan
*
Alkhurer, of Iwillimidan
*
Bazu, Iwillimidan
*
Makhammad Wan Ag Alkhurer Iwillimidan
*
Abdurrakhman Tagama, of Kel Ayr
*
Hammed Almomin Iwillimidan
*
Fihrun Ag Amansar, of Iwillimidan
*
Atisi Ag Amellal of Kel Ahaggar
*
Akhamok Ag Ihemma of Kel Ahaggar
*
Bay Ag Akhamok of Kel Ahaggar
*
Khamzata Ag Mahkhammad, of Iwillimidan
*
Edaber Ag Makhammad the new Amenokal of Kel Ahaggar
The Tuareg are
matrilineal, though not
matriarchal. Unlike many Muslim societies, the women do not traditionally wear the
veil, whereas the men do. The most famous Tuareg symbol is the
Tagelmust, their veil often blue indigo coloured. The men's facial covering originates from the belief that such action wards off evil spirits, but most probably relates to protection against the harsh desert sands as well; in any event, it is a firmly established tradition (as is the wearing of
amulets containing verses from the
Qur'an). Men begin wearing a veil when they reach maturity which usually conceals their entire face excluding their eyes and top of nose.
Many Tuareg today are either settled agriculturalists or nomadic cattle breeders; though there are also
blacksmiths and
caravan leaders.
The Tuareg are sometimes called the "Blue People" because the
indigo pigment in the cloth of their traditional robes and turbans stained the wearer's skin dark blue. Today, the traditional
indigo turban is still preferred for celebrations, and generally Tuaregs wear clothing and turbans in a variety of colors.
Language
Main article: Tuareg languages
The Tuareg speak
Tamajaq/Tamasheq/Tamahaq, a southern
Berber language having several dialects among the different regions. Berber is an Afro-Asiatic language closely related to Pharaohnic Egyptian and Semitic. The language is called
Tamasheq by western Tuareg in Mali,
Tamahaq among Algerian and Libyan Tuareg, and
Tamajaq in the Azawagh and Aïr regions, Niger. The
Tamajaq writing system,
Tifinagh (also called Shifinagh), descends directly from the original Berber script used by the
Numidians in pre-Roman times.
Religion
The Tuareg have been predominantly
Muslim since the
16th century, though some are lax in observance, more inclined to observe feasts than fasts. They combine
Sunni Islam (specifically the
Maliki madhhab, popular in North and West Africa) with certain pre-Islamic animistic beliefs, including spirits of nature (
Kel Asuf) and such
syncretic beliefs as divination through means of the
Qur'an.
Arts
Much Tuareg art is in the form of jewelery, leather and metal saddle decorations called 'Trik', and finely crafted swords. The Inadan community makes traditional handicrafts. Among their products are:
Tanaghilt or
Zakkat (the 'Agadez Cross' or 'Croix d'Agadez'); the Tuareg
Takoba, a nearly one meter long sword, with red leather cover; many beautiful gold and silver-made necklaces called 'Takaza'; and earrings called 'Tizabaten'.
Traditional music
Traditional Tuareg music has two major components: the moncord violin
Anzad played often during night parties and a small tambour covered with goatskin called
Tende, performed during camel races and horce races. and other festivities. Another popular Tuareg musical genre is
Takamba, characteristic for its Afro-Berber percussions.
Tinariwen, a Tuareg band that fuses electric guitars and indigenous musical styles, was founded in the 1980s by rebel fighters. They released their first CD in 2000, and toured in Europe and the United States in 2004.
Many music groups emerged after the 1980s cultural revival.Among them Tartit, Imaran and known artists are: Abdallah Oumbadougou from Ayr, Baly Othmany of Djanet.
The Tuareg are classified as a
Berber group, and are closely related to both
Northwest African
Berbers and
West Africans , in terms of culture and race. At least some sources argue that the Tuareg are defined by language and culture, not by race, and that predominantly Middle Eastern and/or Indigenous African Tamasheq speakers qualify as "Tuareg" (and, presumably, by implication, individuals of Tuareg descent but who have assimilated into various countries and do not speak Tamasheq languages do not). (See, for example, [
1]). This is probably part of the reason for the widely varying estimates of the number of Tuareg.
*Ajjer Region
**Alezi
**Albarkat
**Dirj
**Fewat
**Ganat
**Ghadames
**Ghat
**In Imnas
**Tarat
**Serdales
**Ubari
**Tahala
**Tikruden
*Ahaggar Region
**Arak
**In Amgal
**In Salah
**In Gezzam
*Adagh Region
**Agalhok
**Assuk
**Bughassa
**Tesalit
**Tin Zawatan
**Timiawen
*Agaraw Region
**Tin Bektu
**Gosi
**Gurma-Gharus
*Gawa Region
**Gawa
**Gundam
*Azawagh Region
**Abalagh
**Abalagh Ataram
**Menaka
**Cin Tibaraden
**In Gal
**Tabalaq
**Tasra
**Tawa
**Tiliya
*Ayr Region
**Adarbissanat
**Agadez
**Arlit
**Asamaqqa
**Gugaram
**Elmeki
**Ifrwan
**Tabalot
**Talaq
**Tighazren
**Timia
**Tin Telust
*Agala Region
**Dakaro
**Illela
**Konni
**Kornaka
**Tanut
*
University of Iowa's
Art and Life in Africa Online: Tuareg*
Origin and History of the Tuaregs*
The Massacres at Tchin Tarabaden: 10 years later!. This press release (7 May 2000), while polemical, is useful for a pro-Tuareg view of the conflicts in Mali and Niger.
* Heath Jeffrey 2005:
A Grammar of Tamashek (Tuareg of Mali). New York: Mouton de Gruyer. Mouton Grammar Library, 35. ISBN 3-11-018484-2
* Rando et al. (1998) Mitochondrial DNA analysis of northwest African populations reveals genetic exchanges with European, near-eastern, and sub-Saharan populations.
Annals of Human Genetics 62(6): 531-50; Watson et al. (1996) mtDNA sequence diversity in Africa.
American Journal of Human Genetics 59(2): 437-44; Salas et al. (2002) The Making of the African mtDNA Landscape.
American Journal of Human Genetics 71: 1082-1111. These are good sources for information on the genetic heritage of the Tuareg and their relatedness to other populations.
*
Ethnologue 14 pages for
Niger,
Mali, etc., used for population estimates.
*
Tuareg is not an Ethnos, accessed 2 Feb 2004, available on
Internet Archive at [
2]. Cited for the low-end estimate of population.
*
A comprehensive tuareg chronology along with lists of
amenokals from
Kel Ahaggar,
Kel Adagh and
Kel Azawagh (in Italian).
*
Maps of Niger, pictures of Agadez, Tuaregs, and handcraft from Niger; also a forum (in French)
