Xinhai Revolution
The
Xinhai Revolution or
Hsinhai Revolution (), also known as the
1911 Revolution or the
Chinese Revolution, was a
republican revolution which overthrew
China's ruling
Qing Dynasty, occasionally known as the Manchu Dynasty, and which saw the establishment of the
Republic of China. The revolution brought an end to the
monarchy, which had been in place for 4000 years in
China, and replaced it with a
republic, with
democratic ideals. The ensuing revolutionary
war lasted from
October 10,
1911 and ended with the formation of the Republic of China on
February 12,
1912. Since 1911 is a Xinhai Year in the
sexagenary cycle of
Chinese calendar,
"Xinhai" became the name of the revolution.
The revolution began with the armed
Wuchang Uprising and the spread of republican insurrection through the southern provinces, and culminated in the
abdication of the
Xuantong Emperor after lengthy negotiations between rival Imperial and Republican regimes based in
Beijing and
Nanjing respectively.
The Revolution inaugurated a period of struggle over China's eventual
constitutional form, which saw two brief monarchical restorations and successive periods of political fragmentation before the
Republic's final establishment.
Today, the Xinhai Revolution is commemorated in
Taiwan as
Double Ten Day (雙十節). In
mainland China,
Hong Kong and
Macau the same day is usually celebrated as the Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution. Many
overseas Chinese also celebrate the anniversary, termed either "Double Ten Day" or "Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution", and events are usually held in
Chinatowns across the world.
Self-Strengthening Movement
The
First Opium War is generally considered the starting point of Chinese modern history, bringing a full stop to the long-term isolation of China. Some Chinese officers and intellectuals realised that it was not possible to deal with the new challenges facing China without transformation. The
Self-Strengthening Movement from the 1860s to 1890s, which focused on studying Western science and production modes in an attempt to strengthen national power by means of establishing industry and commerce, was a reformation by the
Qing dynasty itself. However, the defeat in the
First Sino-Japanese War made clear that the changes in technological advancement could not fundamentally improve the condition of old feudal China.
Hundred Days' Reform
After
1895 the fashion began to concern non-government circles with national affairs, leading to some calls for more far-reaching reforms from intellectuals. Some of them such as
Kang Youwei and
Liang Qichao advocated imitating the improvements shown by Japan and Russia regarding how best to work the political and social systems under the imperial power. The reformation, which would eventually be termed the
Hundred Day's Reform due to its short duration, gained the support of
Guangxu Emperor, and commenced in 1898. 103 days later, the reformation was aborted when the conservatives in the dynasty staged a
coup d'état. Though some of the reformers were exiled, there were still some who advocated practicing a constitutional monarchy similar to that of the
United Kingdom, allowing the imperial family to remain in the political system, but shifting the focus of political power to the democratic government.
Abolition of the imperial examination
After the strike of
Boxer Rebellion and the
Eight-Nation Alliance, the Qing government led by the
Empress Dowager Cixi started to carry out the refoms advocated by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao in the
Hundred Days' Reform. Among the changes, the one with the greatest influence was the abolishment of the
imperial examination on
2 September,
1905. The government started building modern colleges, and there were 60,000 of these by the time of the Xinhai Revolution. After the abolishment, traditional literati found they could no longer attempt to get government posts by merely succeeding in the examination, drastically changing the political environment.
Constitutionalism campaign
The Qing government announced an outline of the Constitutionalism campaign on 1st September, 1906. Constitutionalists with high social status from each province urged the government to form a cabinet. In May 1911, the prime minister of the newly formed cabinet was announced to be
Prince Qing. Moreover, 9 of the 13 members of the cabinet were
Manchu, while 7 of them were from the imperial family. All of this came as a disappointment to the constitutionalists. As a result, constitutionalists from different provinces changed their tack, supporting revolution instead of constitutionalism in a campaign to save the nation.
Formation of new armies
In the last years of the Qing dynasty, the old-fashioned armies from the
Eight Banners had lost their strength. The quelling of
Tàipíng Tiānguó mainly relied on township forces (the militias of the local elite). After the
first Sino-Japanese War, as a response to the datedness of the troops, the Qing government had planned to form 36 modern regiments to replace the old ones. Of the 36 regiments, 6 were to form the
Beiyang Army controlled by
Yuan Shikai. To foster new officers, many military schools were built in each province. Some new regiments appointed many overseas students to be officers; In contrast, Beiyang regiments rarely employed overseas students.
Anti-Manchurian stream
The conflict between
Manchu and the
Han Chinese had been nearly forgotten in the middle of the Qing dynasty due to the long period of peace under the Qing government. However, with the decline of the Qing government, the Manchu-Han problem began to surface again after the
Taiping Rebellion. After 1890, writings concerning repulsion with the Manchus began to resurface. Books left over from the last years of
Ming dynasty guided the influential intellectuals of the period. Many revolutionaries even promoted their cause by taking advantage of such ideas. Although some revolutionaries like
Sun Yat-sen mentioned political and economic reform, rather than racial revolution, the main revolutionary forces in the early part of the 20th century were full of ideas of "Manchu repulsion". After the overthrow of the Qing government, the slogan of revolution was changed from "expelling the Manchus" to "harmony among different races" in an attempt to unify the country in fragments.
The main organizations for revolution included the
Revive China Society(興中會), Hua Xing Hui(華興會), Guang Fu Hui(光復會), and the
Tongmenghui(中國同盟會), which was founded later. As well as these, Gong Jin Hui(共進會) and Wen Xue She(文學社) were also important organizations.
Tongmenghui launched their project in
Huanan(華南), while Guang Fu Hui was active in
Jiangsu(江蘇),
Zhejiang(浙江) and
Shanghai(上海). Hua Xing Hui mainly worked in
Hunan(湖南) and Gong Jin Hui in the
Yangtze River(長江) area. The
Tongmenghui, founded later on, was a loose organization distributed across the country.
The main leaders of the organizations were
Sun Yat-sen(孫中山),
Huang Hsing(黃興),
Sung Chiao-jen(宋教仁),
Ts'ai Yüan-p'ei("元培), Zhao Sheng(趙聲),
Zhang Binglin(章炳麟) and Tao Cheng Zhang(陶成章).
Political view
The main political aim of the revolutionaries was to overthrow the rule of the Qing government, rebuilding a
Han Chinese government and constructing a republic. The Revive China Society, founded in 1894, aimed to "expel the Manchus, restore the Han and found a united government". The Hua Xing Hui, founded in 1904, proposed "expelling the Manchus and restoring the Han". The Tongmenghui, founded in 1905, advocated "expelling the Manchus, restoring the Han, founding a republic and equally dividing the land ownership", which referred to the
Three Principles of the People (三民主義,
Nationalism,
Democracy and
Socialism) promoted by
Sun Yat-sen.
However, when the revolutionary parties promoted their political view, "expelling the Manchus and restoring the Han" became the main element, since it made it easier to arouse the anti-Manchurian emotions of the people. The more important point was that nationalism could cohere with different kinds of power to overthrow the government. As for what kind of social system and revolution should be held after the doom of the Qing government, most people treated this as an issue that should only be considered after the overthrowing of the Qing.
History of development
During the 1890s, many people began to advocate for an violent revolution to ultimately overthrow the
Qing Dynasty, and establish a republic similar to
France and
United States. The earliest revolutionary generally gathered abroad, majority of them were students and young Chinese oversea. The earliest revolutionary organizations was established outside of China also.
Yang Quyun's
Furenwen Society was created in
Hong Kong in
1890 while
Sun Yat-sen's
Revive China Society was established at
Honolulu in
1894, with the main purpose of fundraising for the cost of revolution. In
1895, these two organizations were combined in Hong Kong, and continued to use the name of Revive China Society. In the same year of
October 26, the first
uprising were held in
Guangzhou, but was unsucessful. Yang and Sun was forced to flee abroad. Sun Yat-sen was kidnapped by agents from Qing government the next year in
London. This incident became an international headline, and Sun became famous at the international stage. Yang Quyung was assassinated in
1901 by Qing agents in
Hong Kong.
In 1900, the
Boxer Rebellion outbreaks in northern China. The inablity for the Qing Goverment ot solve the incident drastically lowered the image of the government. After they signed the
Boxer Protocol, Chinese intellectuals felt even more about the crisis that China is facing. Beginning after the
First Sino-Japanese War, China began to send more students abroad, particulary to
Japan, which at its height had 20,000 Chinese students. Most of them were sponsored by the government. The revolutionary thoughts spread across the students, and those who advocate revolution established all kinds of organization and publications to preach for an democratic revolution. Between these students, [Zhang Binglin]],
Zou Rong and
Chen Tianhua were very active in Japan. Mant of the students later returned to China, and became the backbone of revolutionary organizations inside the country.
When the
Russo-Japanese War reached its outbreak in
Manchuria in
1904, Qing Government decided to scatch out certain territories for these two countries to combat while China stays "neutral". The neglected attitude of the Qing Government led more calls for an revolution. The main ones were Hua Xing Hui, led by
Huang Hsing which was established in
Changsha,
1904, with members like Huang Hsing,
Liu Kuiyi and
Song Jiaoren, mainly youngsters from
Hunan, as well as Guang Fu Hui, established by
Tao Chenzhang,
Cai Yuanpei October in
Shanghai ,
1904, consisted members like
Qiu Jin and
Zhang Binlin, mainly youngsters from
Zhejiang; there were also other all kinds of minor revolutionary organization such as
Lizhi Xuehui in Jiangsu,
Gongchanghui in Sichuan,
Yiwenhui and
Hanzhudulihui in Fujian,
Yizhihui in Jiangxi,
Yuewanghui in Anhui and
Qunzhihui in Guangzhou. These organizations may not be connected, and majority of them were regionally influenced, but they generally have the common target: too overthrow the Manchus, and restore the Hans to create a republic similar to United States. The anti-Manchurian stream was beneficial for the revolution, and many revolutionary sought to use aid from these society e.g. Hua Xin Hui and the
Ge Lao Hui, Guang Fu Hui and
Qing Ban, Revive China Society and
Shahehui all had close relations; Sun Yat-sen himself was a member of
Hongmen Zhigongtang.
Sun Yat-sen successfully united Revive China Society, Hua Xin Hui and Guang Fu Hui in summer 1905 to establish Chinese
Tongmenhui on
August 10 in
Tokyo. They called for "Get rid of Manchus, restore China, establish Republic and equalize the land." on Min Bao
[Clipping from Min Bao (People's Papers). Originally the publishing of Hua Xin Hui and was named "China of the Twentieth Century", it was renamed after the establishment of Tongmenhui.] to state the view. Tongmenhui was active on publicizing their thoughts, and pushed forward to awaken the public. The democratic Min Bao and the royalist Xinmincong Bao began to unfold intense debates, and it became the base of the revolution. Even though Tongmenhui was divided again at one point (Members disapproved Sun Yat-sen's refusal to accept financial support from Japanese government, Guang Fu Hui withdrew. Sun Yat-sen and Wang Jingwei, Hu Hanming re-established headquarter in southern pacific; Huang Hsing continues to support Sun Yat-sen), it still made crucial impacts on the revolution.
On February
1906,
Ri Zhi Hui convened an conference which many revolutionary like Sun Wu, Zhang Nanxian, He Jiwei and Feng Mumin attended. Ri Zhi Hui emphasized the spread of new knowledge and revolutionary thoughts among students, new armies and other organizations. It later became Tongmenhui's establishment in Hubei.
On July
1907, several members of Tongmenhui in Tokyo advocated a revolution in the area of
Yangtze River.
Liu Quiyi,
Jiao Dafeng,
Zhang Boxiang and
Sun Wu established
Gong Jin Hui. The nature and outline of Gong Jin Hui were essentially the same as Tongmenhui, but it does not belong to Tongmenhui directl. Gong Jin Hui was one of the leading organization in the Wuchang Uprising.
On
January 30 1911, Zhengwu Xueshe was renamed as Wen Xue She, and Jiang Yiwu was chosen as the leader. Wen Xue She was organized by the youngsters in the new armies, and its main purpose was to infiltrate into the new armies, and to grasp the military arms. Wen Xue Hui was another of the leading organization in the Wuchang Uprising.
Strata and group
The strength of Xinhai Revolution was consisted of many factors, including students and intellectuals that returned from abroad, as well as partipants of the organizations, Chinese overseas, soldiers of the news armies, local gentry, farmers and others.
Newly emerged intellectuals
The newly emerged intellectuals consisted mainly oversea students and students of the new schools. After the abolition of imperial examination, Qing Government established many new schools and encouraged students to study abroad. Many youngsters went into new schools or went abroad to study. Most people went particularly to Japan to study military.
In the 1900s, going to Japan was a mainstream in China. Before the Xinhai Revolution, there were over ten thousand of Chinese students in Japan. Around these students, large anti-Manchu strength were gathered. When Tongmenhui was established in Tokyo in 1905, 90% of the participants were Chinese students in Japan. Members of Tongmenhui in Japan for military study also organized Zhangfutuan.
Chinese students in Japan contributed immensely to the Xinhai Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution like Huang Hsing, Song Jiaoren, Hu Hanming, Liao Zhongkai, Zhu Zhixin and Wang Jingwei were all Chiense students in Japan.
Abolishment of the imperial examination led to the appearance and rise of the new intelluctual class. Those that have received western culture became leading strength in the Xinhai Revolution.
Participant of organizations
Near the end of Qing Dynasty, many secret organizations like Hong Men, Ge Lao Hui, Zhi Gong Tang, Sha He Hui and Hong Jiang Hui were the main strength on leading the public in struggle to resist the Qing Government. The participants of organizations including landowners, farmers, workers, merchants, soldiers and civilians. The organizations, topped by landowners and gentry, generally promoted the ideas of "Resist Qing and restore
Ming".
Chinese Revival Society and Ge Lao Hui, Guang Fu Hui and Qing Bang, Revive China Society and Shan He Hui were all closely connected; Sun Yat-sen himself as mentioned, was a member of the Hong Men. Before 1908, revolutionary were focused on connecting and utilizing the organizations to prepare to launch uprisings through this organizations, making them the main strength for the overthrow of Qing Dynasty.
After the Xinhai Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of searching for revolutionary strength and said "Literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, were only considered lower class. In opposite, the organization of Shan He Hui were able to plant the ideas of resist Qing, and retore Ming."
["Compelte works of Sun Yat-sen"《总理全集》 First edition, page 920]Chinese Overseas
In the Xinhai Revolution, the assists from Chinese overseas functioned importantly. They supported and actively participated in the Tongmeihui, funding the revolutionary activities. Some of them even returned to their homeland to establish revolutionary organization, and particpated in many of the armed uprisings. The first year of the Revive China Society in Honolulu in November 1894, around 20 of the first ones to join were Chinese overseas.
The contribution of Chinese overseas were one of the most important factor for the success of Xinhai Revolution. In the "72 martyrs of Huanghuagang", 29 of them were oversea Chinese.
Soldiers of the new armies
Beginning in 1908, the revolutionaries began to shift its preach to the new armies. The revoluttionaries began to carry out revolutionary activities and propagates. Because of the abolishment of imperial examination, many young intellectuals joined the new armies and became the backbone of the army.
Wen Xue Hui and Gong Jin Hui, two of the leading organizer of Wuchang Uprising established relations with the new armies very early.
Gentry & businessman
In between September to October 1907, the Qing Government set up some government apparatus for gentry and businessman to participate in the politics. The stength of gentry in local politics became apparent.
These people were originally supporters of constitutionism. However, they were disappointed on the Qing Government when the first cabinets were all members of royal family. After the Wuchang Uprising, these people began to echo after the revolution.
Foreigners
Besides Chinese and oversea Chinese, part of the supporters and partipants of Xinhai Revolution were foreigners; the Japanese were the most active in partipating Chinese revolution. Many of the revolutionary organizations were established and functioned in Japan; The Chinese Tongmenhui were brought together and established in Tokyo by the Japanese supporters of the revolution. Some Japanese people even joined to become members of Tongmenhui. In various uprisings, there were always Japanese who directly participated and some were even sacrificed.
During the year of 895]] to
1911, Revival China Society and the later
Tongmenghui launched ten uprisings. Guang Fu Hui (Restoration Society) also launched several uprisings. These uprisings were shortlived, but it sets the possiblity for revolutions in China.
First Guangzhou uprising and the follow-up
1895年春天，以香港为中心的興中會策劃第一次廣州起義，"陆"东绘制'天白日旗。10月26日，楊衢雲、孫中山率领鄭士良、陆"东到广州，准备一举而袭取广州。但是事机泄漏，清"府展開大搜捕，陆"东在這次的起義中被捕，不幸身亡。第一次广州起义因此宣告失败。孫中山及楊衢雲則被清廷通緝。香港當局在清"府"力下亦下令禁止二人於"年內再次入境。孫中山開始流亡海外，在日本、美國、倫敦等地宣傳革命及籌措"費。
1900年，中國發"义'拳之乱，北方陷于無"府状态，于是決定准备軍事起義。6月，孫中山與鄭士良、陳少白、楊衢雲及日本人宮崎"天、平山周、內"良平等從橫濱抵"香港，但被英國當局'絕入境。9月25日，孫中山在日本黑龍會的幫助下，"馬關赴台灣。會見日本民"長官之後，得到日本駐台殖民地官"承諾"持在廣東舉事。孫中山於是在台北建立起義指揮中心。10月8日，孫中山命鄭士良等人于惠州三洲"發動起义，也稱惠州起義、庚子革命、庚子首义、三洲"首义等。起義軍在三多祝發展至2万人。但日本官"於此時"變態度，推翻之前軍備補給、軍官參與的承諾。革命軍因粮绝弹尽而解散，不久在清"府镇压下宣告失敗，史堅如、山"良"等被殺。孫中山被台灣日本當局送離境，回到日本。
1907年5月，革命党及三合會人许雪秋、陈芸"、陈涌波、余紀成等发动黄冈起义，一举占领了黄冈城（今潮州'平縣）。许雪秋、陈芸"為星加坡華僑，在星加坡加入同盟會。起义後，清潮州总兵黄金福立即带兵前往镇压，革命党人被杀害200餘人，历时6天的黄冈起义遂告失败。
同年，孙中山派人到广东惠州发动起义，以""黄冈起义。6月2日（四月廿二），"子瑜'陈纯等集合少数三合会党在距惠州20里的七女湖截获清军防营枪械，击毙巡勇及水师"弁多人。5日，进"泰尾，清守兵溃逃，起义军乘胜连克杨村、三达、柏塘等地，旋又在八子爷"败清营管带洪兆麟。'善、博罗、龙门各地会党纷起""，队伍增至200余人。清水师提督李准急调兵镇压，起义军声东击西，使得军获于"命。后因黄冈起义失败，得不到声援，遂在梁化墟解散。部分起义军流亡香港，大部分退人罗浮山区。
1907年7月6日，光復會的徐錫麟在安徽安慶起義。徐錫麟時任安徽巡警处会办兼巡警学堂监督，在畢業典禮當天刺殺巡'恩銘，然後率學"軍，連同陳伯平等與清軍戰鬥，激戰四小時後寡不敵眾戰敗，徐錫麟被捕後被處死。秋瑾亦因而受牽連被斬首。
8月，廣東(今屬廣西)欽州那彭那麗那矺三鄉反抗塘捐出現民變，孫中山命會黨首領王'順為"中華國民軍都督"前往聯繫，於9月率眾成""取防城。之後圖"取欽州，未果，最後退到十萬大山一帶，王'順"回越南。
12月，孫中山派黃明堂為鎮南關都督，於12月2日，在守軍作內應下，""中越邊境之鎮南關炮台。孫中山、黃興、胡漢民等親自在炮台指揮作戰。廣西提督調陸榮廷率四千人圍"，革命軍退入山區。鎮南關起義失敗後，清朝"府到安南追查孫中山等人，孫中山轉赴新加坡，要到武昌起義成功才再次踏足中國國土。
1908年2月，黃興以越南為基地，以二百多人從法屬越南進"廣東欽州、廉州，作戰十四天。是為欽州、廉州起義。
1908年4月發動於雲南河口，4月30日黃明堂從越南率二百餘人進"雲南河口，守軍響應兵變。黃興亦加入指揮。至26日清軍"陷河口，部分革命軍退入越南。1910年，黃興、胡漢民及新軍內的倪炳章策動廣州新軍兵變，因清庭事先得到消息'嚴而未能成功。
Second Guangzhou uprising
1910年11月13日，孫中山在馬來半島的檳"嶼，召集趙聲、黃興、胡漢民、鄧澤如等同盟會重要骨幹會議。以之前"會黨為主力在邊區的起義皆未能成功，革命正陷入低潮，議決集同盟會精英，在廣州起義，'清"府決一死戰。
1911年4月，赵声、黄兴等人在广州领导起义。起义队伍与清军展开激烈巷战，但最终因力量不敌而失败。后""到72具烈士遗骸，合葬于黄花岗，"此建成黄花岗七十二烈士"。而此次起义中牺牲的起义军则不止此数。牺牲者多為同盟會精英，當中包括有"持中國革命的日本人。
Revolutionary activities in the Malayas
文学社'公进会是新兴知识阶层的革命组织，新军士兵是发动革命的潜在力量，文学社'公进会一直以新军士兵作为主要工作对象。1911年3月，武汉新军各标营均已经建立起文学社的组织。共进会主要集中于新军第三十二标发展会员。武昌起义时已经有5000多名士兵加入了文学社'共进会，约"新兵总人数的三分之一。
1911年5月9日，清"府實行鐵路國有"策，宣佈"回"民"出資建造的
粵漢鐵路、
川漢鐵路。 這一舉措引起湘、鄂、川、粵四省各階層的強烈不滿，掀起了四省
保路運動，尤以四川最爲強烈。
6月17日，四川民"各團"成立"四川保路同志會"，推舉'議局議長
'殿俊為會長，副議長
罗纶为副会长，張貼文告，四處講"，"至上京請願。
8月5日，在成都召開川漢鐵路股東特別大會，8月24日，群衆開展罷市罷課，
9月1日，在川漢鐵路公司股東會議的號召下，開展抗糧抗捐活動。
9月7日，四川都督
趙爾丰誘捕保路同志會領袖，封閉鐵路公司'同志會。這一舉措激起了大量群衆到總督衙門請願，趙爾丰下令清兵彈"，"死30餘名請願群衆，釀成成都血案。
9月8日，成都附近農民在
同盟會'會黨組"
"老會的領導下組成保路同志軍起義，圍"省城，與清兵交戰，附近州縣群衆紛紛響應，幾天内隊伍發展到20多万。
9月25日，同盟會會"
吳玉章、
王天傑等人領導
榮縣獨立。清朝"府得知激起民變，成都被圍后，非常驚恐，忙調
端方率湖北新軍入川鎮"革命。
湖北新軍原為
張之洞所練的"鄂軍"，中下層軍官不少曾官費派日留學，因而遍布革命黨人。當中以共進會及文學社兩個革命團"滲透最廣。保路運動釀成民變后，端方奉命率湖北新军入四川鎮"。此時，武漢新軍大部被調入川，武漢的防務非常空虛，革命黨人認爲這是發動起義的好機會。
1911年
9月24日，文學社與共進會在武昌召開"雙方負責人'新軍代表60餘人參加的聯席會議，會上組建了起義的領導機構""起義總指揮部。文學社負責人"翊武被推舉為總指揮，共進會負責人孫武被推舉為參謀長。共進會負責人劉公被推舉為"治籌備処總理。起義總指揮部設于武昌小朝街85號文學社機關，正值籌備処設于漢口俄租界寶善里14號。起義機關定為1911年10月6日（舊歷八月十"日，中秋節），後因準備不足，起義日期推遲到10月16日。
10月9日共進會人
孫武在漢口俄租界寶善里14號秘密製造炸彈時發"事故，孙武被炸傷。俄國巡捕前來搜查，受傷的孫武'其他人脫逃，但起義的文件，旗幟等被搜走，並在相鄰的劉公住所内帶走了劉公的弟弟劉同。湖廣總督
瑞澂聞得此事後下令全城'嚴，搜捕革命黨人。文學社負責人'翊武聞訊后，決定當夜發動起義，並派人給各營送信。當日晚
彭楚藩、
劉復基在起義總指揮部被捕、
楊宏勝在運送彈藥的路上被捕，
10月10日晨三人被被斬首。
后队正目（相當於班長）
熊秉坤等人決定起義，並拉來隊官（相當於連長）
吳兆麟作爲起義軍臨時總指揮，熊秉坤為參謀長。1911年10月10日（農曆8月19日）晚"八時，
程定國發出武昌起義的第一槍，新军工程营首先發難""楚望台軍械庫，繼而深受文学社共进会等革命团"影"的大部分新軍共同響應。吳兆麟、熊秉坤率起義部隊""總督府，在南湖炮隊的炮"下，起義軍在次日黎明前，"領總督衙門，
湖廣總督瑞澂逃走。
10月11日黎明，起義軍聚集在湖北省'議局大"會議廳，
"濟民召集會議，商討組建軍"府'推舉都督人選。除革命黨人
吳'漢、
徐"明等十餘人外，還邀請'議局議長
湯化龍、副議長
張囯溶以及議"，還有舊軍官
吳兆麟參加。會議請湯化龍主持。吳兆麟提議"第21混成"統領黎元洪""任都督，立憲派一致"戴，部分革命黨人也因爲
黄兴、
宋教仁不在武昌，
彭楚藩、
劉復基、
楊宏勝被害，
孙武被炸傷，'翊武被迫逃，'有更好的人選表示同意，因此會議通過了以黎元洪為都督，湯化龍為民"縂長（一說為總參議）。
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Flag of the iron blood and eighteen stars |
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Establishment of Republic of China Hubei Government in October 11, 1911 |
11日上午，武昌全部光復。晚上成立謀略処。在謀略出的主持下，宣佈成立中華民國軍"府鄂軍都督府（即中華民國湖北軍"府），公佈軍"府檄文'《安民布告》，宣佈"國號為
中華民國，廢除清朝宣統年號，""黃帝紀元，宣統三年"爲黃帝纪元4609年。軍"府建立參謀部、軍務部、"事部、外交部。以'議局大"為辦公地，以
十八星旗為軍旗。謀略處以軍"府名義發佈《布告全國電》，《通告各省文》等文告通電全國。
10月12日，革命黨人
胡玉珍、
邱文彬等率漢陽新軍起義，光復漢陽；革命黨人
趙承武率漢陽新軍起義，""漢口，至此，
漢口與
漢陽全部掌握在革命軍手中。
Echo from the provinces
在武昌起義成功之後，清"府派北洋軍南下""漢口，隨後启"了早先被罢黜的原北洋軍首領袁世凯，以穩定北洋新軍。清军与革命軍在漢口的作战中革命军最终戰敗，在49天的作戰中傷亡約萬餘人，但能仍堅守武昌，也因此在這的七個星期之內，中國15個省陸續宣佈脫離清室獨立，其中主要以各省的諮議局成员為主要領導，少數地區"革命黨主導。
10月22日，湖南共进会会员焦达峰、陈作新率领以会党'新军组成的队伍在长沙发动起义，"克长沙，杀死清军统领，宣布成立中华民国湖南军"府，推举焦达峰为都督，陈作新为副都督，并发布《讨满清檄文》。同日陕西同盟会会员景梅九、井勿幕等人同"老会"合，发动会党'新军的革命分子同时起义，经两天激战控制西安，成立秦龙复汉军"府，推举原日知会会员，新军队官张凤"被为都督。
10月23日，江西同盟会会员林森、'群、"蕙等人策动九江的新军举行起义，胜利后即宣告独立，次日成立九江军"分府，推举"十三标标统马"宝为九江军"分府都督。
10月29日，山西同盟会会员、新军标统阎"山"合姚以阶、黄国梁、温寿泉、赵戴文、南桂馨、"熙等人发动新军在太原起义，杀死山西巡抚陆'奇，宣布成立山西军"府，推选阎"山为都督。
10月30日，云南同盟会会员李根源"合新军标统""、罗佩金及管带"继尧等人率领新军发动武装起义，次日占领昆明，成立云南军"府，推举""为都督。
10月31日，南昌同盟会会员"公时等人率领新军发动起义并获成功，建立江西军"府，推举李烈'为都督。
11月3日,上海同盟会、光复会、上海商团的陈其美、张承槱、李平书、李燮'与宋教仁等在上海发动武装起义，主要力量有张承槱、刘福标等人组织的以帮会力量为主的敢死队，上海商团李平书的一"武装力量，朱家骅、徐霁"等人组织的中国敢死团，除此以外，起义队伍还得到了淞沪地区部分军警的"援。4日，"占江南制造局，继而占领上海，8日成立中华民国军"府沪军都督府，推举陈其美为都督。
11月4日，贵州革命党人张百麟等的领导'发动新军'陆军学堂的学"举行起义 ，随即"占贵阳，成立大汉贵州军"府，推举贵州新军第一标教官兼讲武堂堂长及陆军小学堂总办杨荩诚为都督，赵德全为副都督。同日，浙江革命党人发动驻杭州新军八十一标朱瑞部，八十二标周承菼部军官吴思豫、吕公望、'百里、'百器、杨廷栋、吴肇基人等及王文庆率领从上海赶来的敢死队起义，从笕桥、南星桥出发进"省城杭州。朱瑞、吴思豫、吕公望等率八十一标及王金发敢死队"占军械局。周承菼统八十二标''介石、尹志"所属敢死队"占抚台衙门。杨廷栋率兵包围了巡抚府，巡抚增韫被俘，5日，杭州光复。浙江'议局议长陈絅宸、沈''及马叙伦等人，推举立宪派汤寿潜为都督。
11月5日，江苏的立宪派及绅商怂恿巡抚程德全宣布独立，并于宣布成立江苏革命军"府，程德全自任都督。安徽同盟会会员吴旸谷等率标炮营等也在"日起义，并向省城进"。立宪派则劝说朱家宝独立，11月8日，'议局出面宣布独立，推举朱家宝为都督，王天培为副都督。
11月6日，广西'议局作出决定，与清"府脱离关系，宣布广西独立，原清朝巡抚沈秉担任都督，几天后清军提督陆荣廷发动兵变夺取了都督之位。
11月9日，福建同盟会会员郑祖荫、彭寿松、许崇智、新军第十镇统制孙"仁率领所部起义，向清军发起进"，清总督松寿自杀，11月11日，福建宣告光复，福建军"府成立，推举孙"仁为都督。
10月底，广东同盟会会员陈炯明，""'彭瑞海等人在广东化州、南海、顺德、三水等地组织民军起义。11月8日 在胡汉民的劝说下，广东水师提督李准'龙济光同意反正，民军声势浩大，两广总督张鸣岐被迫召集各界代表在'议局讨论广东独立问题，决定次日宣布广东独立。11月9日，陈炯明率部光复徽州，同日，广东宣布独立，成立军"府。推举胡汉民为都督，陈炯明为副都督。
11月13日，在山东革命党人丁惟汾的劝说'新军第"镇部分贾宾卿等中下级军官的胁迫下，山东巡抚孙宝琦同意山东独立，推举孙宝琦为都督。
11月17日宁夏同盟会"会发动宁夏会党起义，21日成立"那宁夏革命军"府。
11月21日，广安州组成大汉蜀北军"府。22日，蜀军"府在重庆成立，27日，在四川的鄂军在资中反正，杀死督办"路大臣端方。同一天成都宣布独立，成立大汉四川军"府，"革命党人'殿俊担任都督。
11月8日，在同盟会会员策''"持下，新军第九镇统制官徐绍桢，于南京城外六十里之秣陵关宣布起义。徐绍桢与上海都督陈其美及苏浙起义军将领商定组建"军会"南京，徐绍桢任总司令。11月11日，"军司令部在镇江成立。11月24日至12月1日，在总司令徐绍桢的统一指挥下,"军相继"占乌龙山、幕府山、雨花台、天保城等据点。12月2日一举"占南京城(见苏浙"军"克南京之战)。至此，长江以南全部为革命军据有。而以黃興為首的革命軍在12月2日"克南京，更奠定革命軍在南方穩固的基礎。
Nanking temporary government
11月1日，清"府命袁世凯为内阁总理，海外华侨，留学"'国内舆论界认为"袁世凯资格，适于总统"，主张争取袁世凯反正，推举其为第一任大总统。
11月9日，
黄兴致函袁世凯，希望他"以拿破仑、华盛顿之资格，出而建拿破仑、华盛顿之事功"，主张给袁世凯"一个民选的总统"，避免
曾国藩剿灭太平天国的悲剧。
11月16日，孙中山在巴黎也致"国民军"府，表示同意举袁世凯为总统。
1911年11月，以黎元洪為首的武昌集團'以上海都督陳其美、江蘇都督程德全為代表的上海集團，同時展開了籌組中央"府的活動。11月9日，黎元洪以湖北軍"府都督的名義，向獨立各省發出通電，要求各省速派代表到武昌開會，商組中央"府事宜。11月11日，上海都督陳其美、江蘇都督程德全等三省军"府都督電邀各省派代表到上海開會。
11月15日，各省都督府代表聯合會在上海舉行，上海、江蘇、浙江、福建等省代表參加。武昌集團堅持會議要移到武昌召開。"於武昌最先發動起義，多省代表已抵"武漢，同盟會主要領導人黃興、宋教仁等人也在武漢。最後，上海集團"步，議決各省代表赴武漢，定于30日在汉口召開會議，商議組"臨時中央"府，制定《中华民国临时"府组织大纲》。但每省在上海仍須留1名代表作爲通信聯絡機關。
11月21日，各省代表陆续到达武昌。
11月30日，各省代表等在汉口英租界顺昌洋行召开第一次会议，参加会议的有十四省代表二十四人，推
谭人凤为议长。议决临时"府成立以前，"鄂军"府代中央军"府职权。
12月2日，决定先制定临时"府组织大纲，选举
雷奋、
马君武、
王正廷为组织大纲起草员。并做出了"如袁世凯反正，"共举为临时大总统"的决定。
12月3日，会议通过《中华民国临时"府组织大纲》，临时"府组织大纲分三章共二十一条，并即日"全"省代表签名宣布。同時決定以南京為臨時"府所在地,確定臨時"府為總統制共'"府。各省代表於七天內齊集南京，如有十省以上代表到"，即開臨時大總統選舉會。
12月4日，宋教仁、陳其美等却召集留在上海的各省代表
沈恩孚、
俞寰澄、
朱葆康、
林长民、
马良、
王照、
欧阳振声、
居正、
陶凤集、
吴景濂、
刘兴"、
赵学臣、
朱福诜在上海江苏省教育总会举行会议，列席會議的還有
章炳麟、
赵凤昌、
章驾时、
"元培、
王一亭、
黄中央、
顾忠琛、
彭"范。大会以投票的方式，议决公電孫中山惠囯主持大"，推舉黃興為革命軍"府大元帥，黎元洪為副元帥，"大元帥主持中華民國臨時"府。議決黃興對於大元帥一職再三推辭，黎元洪卻不願屈居黃興之下，表示反對。在讨论国旗时，湖北代表提议"十八星旗，福建代表提议"
'天白日旗，江浙方面提议""色旗为国旗象徵"族共'，红、黄、"、白、黑，象征汉、满、'、回、藏。最后形成了以"色旗为国旗、"血旗为陆军旗、'天白日旗为海军旗的折衷方案。
12月11日，上海'汉口两地的17省代表来到南京，继续商讨建立中央"府。
12月14日，各省代表在南京开会，決定根"《臨時"府組"大綱》選舉總統，此時各代表分成"持在湖北首功的黎元洪以及黃興兩派，相持不下。
12月15日，代表获悉袁世凯赞成共'，決定暫緩選舉臨時總統，虚位以待袁世凯反正。
12月25日，孙中山从法国马赛回国抵达上海。孙中山"于有着"较高的威望，受到许多革命团"的"持，成为众望所'的总统人选。立宪派'旧势力也认为孙中山是在争取袁世凯反正之前的总统人选。
12月28日，在南京召開臨時大總統選舉預備會。
12月29日，各省代表在南京召開選舉臨時大總統會。臨時大總統根"臨時"府組"大綱第一條：「臨時大總統，"各省都督代表選舉之；以得票滿總數三分之二以上者為當選。代表投票權，每省以一票為限。」選出。參加選舉的有直隸、奉天、山東、山西、河南、陜西、湖北、湖南、江西、安徽、江蘇、浙江、福建、廣東、廣西、雲南、四川等十七省代表四十"人，孫中山獲得十七張有效票的十六票，當選為中華民國第一任臨時大總統。
1912年1月1日，孫中山在南京正式宣佈中華民國成立，並宣"就任臨時大總統，在"临时大总统就职宣言书"中强调"国家之本，在于人民。合汉、满、'、回、藏诸地为一国，即合汉、满、'、回、藏诸族为一人。是曰民族之统一。"。
1月2日，孫中山通告各省廢除陰曆，""陽歷，以中華民國紀年，1912年為中華民國元年。
1月3日，各省代表會議推選黎元洪任臨時副總統，並通過了孫中山提出的臨時"府各部總長、次長名單，正式組成中華民國臨時"府。臨時"府下設十個部，陸軍部總長
黃興，海軍部總長
黃鐘瑛，外交部總長
王寵惠，司法部總長
伍廷芳，財"部總長
陳錦濤，內務部總長
程德全，教育部總長
"元培，實業部總長
張謇，交通部總長
湯壽潛，參謀本部縂長
黃興。此外，總統府秘書長
胡漢民，法制局長
宋教仁，印鑄局長
黃復"。1月11日，各省代表会议通過以《中華民國臨時"府組"大綱》為綱領，以
南京為臨時首都，以紅黃藍白黑
"色旗為
中華民國國旗，象徵"族共'之意。
1月28日各省代表會議成立臨時參議院，各省代表會為任參議"，推
林森、
陳陶遺任正副議長。
1912年3月11日，孫中山簽署並公佈《
中華民國臨時約法》。
Peace negotiation between the North and South
武昌起義之后，在中国有重大利益的外国列强保持了观望态度，并试图从北京"权或武昌"权中寻找到最能符合各方利益的一派来"持。
10月14日，清廷任命前被罢黜，现在
彰德养病的袁世凯为湖广总督，统率北洋軍向武漢進"。
11月2日在"下漢口之後，便按兵不動，開始暗中與南方議'。而後帶衛隊抵京。11月袁世凯成为清"府
内阁总理大臣，并获各国承认与"持。
11月26日，袁世凯托英国驻汉口总领事
葛福（Herbert Goffe）向军"府'各省代表提出议'三条件：停战，清帝退位，选袁世凯为总统。12月1日，南北双方签订了《武汉地区停战协定》，武汉地区于2月3日上午8时至12月6日上午8时停火三天。2月3日武汉地区停火，进行休战谈判。
12月8日袁世凯派
"绍仪为总理内阁大臣的全权代表，
12月9日，"绍仪等离京赴武汉与黎元洪或其代表商谈大局。 同日，各省代表正式推举
伍廷芳为民军议'全权总代表。
在外国列强的干预下，代表北方的
"绍仪与南方的
伍廷芳在上海英
租界进行了谈判。後來"成"議，袁世凱"持逼清廷退位，換取南方各省"持袁任中华民国大总统。為了防止新"的共'""遭到
內戰或外國軍隊可能的入侵而夭折，孫中山同意袁世凱提出的把中國統一到以袁世凱為首的北京"府之下的要求。
1912年1月1日南京临时"府正式成立，孙中山先"在南京就任临时大总统。
1月11日，17日，19日，南京临时"府接连三次要求列强承认，均无一字"复。1月2日，袁得知孙中山就任大总统后，'""绍仪'谈代表的资格。
1月16日，袁世凯在下朝的路上遭到同盟会京津分会组织的炸弹暗杀，炸死袁卫队长等十人，袁幸免遇难，17日袁派人向革命党人表示效忠革命，希望革命党人不要再对其进行暗杀活动。
1月20日, 南京临时"府向袁世凯正式提出清帝退位优待条件。
1月22日，孫中山發表聲明，只要袁世凱贊成清帝退位，自積即行辭職，"位于袁世凱。袁世凯得到这个保证后，便加紧了逼宫的进程。袁世凯以利害游说'买通
庆亲王奕劻'
那桐，并以金'贿赂
隆裕太后身边受宠的太监
张兰德（人称小德张），威"隆裕太后，大势已去，如果革命军杀到北京，则皇室"命难保，而同意让位，则可有优待条件。
1月25日，在袁世凯授意下，段祺瑞率北洋將領47人"名致"内阁、军'府、陆军部'各王公大臣，提出民军已""对清朝皇室、王族及满'回藏各族的优待条件，陈情"即此停戰兩月"，民軍籌餉增兵，佈滿各境，我軍皆無後援，力太單弱，加以兼顧數路，勢益孤危"，要求"懇請渙汗大號，明降諭旨，宣示中外，立定共'"""。
1月29日，召开清廷御前会议，会上决定推诿，以取得革命党人的优待条件。
2月3日，隆裕太后授予袁世凯全权，与南京临时"府商定清朝皇帝退位条件。
2月6日，南京参议院通过清室退位《优待条例》'张謇起草的《清帝退位诏书》。优待条例包括：
*一，大清皇帝尊号 不废，民国"府待之以外国君主之礼;
*二，民国每年拨四百万元供皇帝"出；
*三，皇帝暂居宫禁，日后移居颐'园；
*四，清王室的宗庙陵寝，永远奉祀，并"民国派兵保护；
*"，德宗（即光绪）崇陵所有产"经费"民国"出。
*六，宫内执事之人，继续留"，"不得招阉人。
*七，皇室私有财产，"民国派兵保护。
*八，禁军编入民国陆军。
除清室退位优待条例外，还有对清王族及满'回藏各族待遇七条。
Abdication of the emperor
|
Imperial edict for abdiction |
After being compelled and pursuaded by Yuan Shikai and other ministers, emperor Xuantong
Fuyi and her mother
Empress Longyu accepted the terms of perquisite for the royal family, and issued an imperial edict which announced the abdiction of Xuantong. Yuan Shikai was authorized to arrange the temporary republic government.
This imperial edict of abdiction was drafted by Zhang Jian, and was approved by the temporary senate. But in the edict, the text "immediate authorization for Yuan Shikai to arrange temporary republic government"
["即"袁世凱以全權組"臨時共'"府] was added by the subordinates of Yuan. From this point on, Republic of China officially ended and repl;aced Qing Dynasty, which reigned China for 268 years.
Yuan Shikai as the temporary president
|
Yuan Shikai sworn as the temporary president in Peking |
The temporary senate selected Yuan as the temporary president after the emperor's abdiction. On
March 10,
1912, Yuan Shikai sworn as the second temporary president of the Republic of China in Peking. Sun Yat-sen visited the senate on
April 1 and announced the removal of his temporary president status. Upon until now, the world powers began to recognize Republic of China. Yuan Shikai used mutiny in Peking as an excuse to move the capital of Republic of China back fron
Nanking to
Peking.
Yuan was insistent on a centralized government, which prevents certain revolutionary from attemping to separate away from the central government and establish individual provincial independence. At the same time, Yuan negotiated with the world powers and to a certain extent preserved Chinese soverignty over
Mongolia and
Tibet.
The period from this point until
1928 was known simply as the "Beiyang Period". The government of Republic of China during this period was called the
Beiyang Government.On February
1913, China announced parliamental election according to the temporary constitution for the first time.
Kuomintang had the most seats, and Song Jiaoren was designated as the prime minister of the cabinet. However, Song was assassinated in Shanghai on
March 20. Yuan Shikai was believed as the plotter. Sun Yat-sen launched the
Second Revolution on July to attack Yuan with armed forces, but was defeated by Yuan. Yuan Shikai later attempted to restore monarchy, but ended up an failure. After Yuan's death, China entered the
Warlord Era. Sun Yat-sen organized several governments in Guangzhou to "protect" the temporary constitution, and Chinese was divided up as north and south.
Historical significance
Social influence
Influence to the frontiers
Influence in the Malayas
*
History of China*
History of the Republic of China*
Military of the Republic of China
*
"德剛**晚清七十年·"：袁世凱、孫文與辛亥革命 (台北：遠流，1998) ISBN 957-32-3513
**袁氏當國 (台北：遠流，2002) ISBN 957-32-4680-5
*
張玉法：中華民國史稿（台北：聯"出版社，1998）ISBN 957-08-1826-3
*林""〈"四時代的激烈反傳統思想與中國自"主義的前"〉"入《思想與人物》（台北：聯"出版社，1983) ISBN 957-08-0384-3
*周伟民，"玲玲：中国'马来西亚文化交流史（海口市：海南出版社，2002）ISBN 7-5443-0682-8
*作者：
梅·戈"斯坦，翻译：杜永彬，《喇嘛王国的覆灭》，中国藏学出版社，2005年，ISBN 7-80057-725-2
*
尚明轩：《孙中山传》，北京出版社，1979年
*
宋平：《'介石"平》，吉林人民出版社，1987年
*
胡绳武：〈袁世凯为什么能窃取临时大总统的席位〉，《文史知识》，1984年第9期
*
林增平：〈会党与辛亥革命〉，《文史知识》，1984年第9期
*
王来棣：〈辛亥革命时期的湖北军"府剖析〉，《近代史"究》， 1980年第1期
*李澤厚、劉再復《告別革命－二十世紀中國對談錄》，（台北：麥"出版神，1999）ISBN957-708-735-3
*
袁偉時：〈辛亥革命的是是非非〉
*L.S.斯"夫理阿诺斯 《全球通史》
Sun Yat-sen Nanyang Memorial Hall
